Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Abomination is used of idols (e.g., 2Kings 23:13, 24; Jer. 7:30; cf. Ezek. 8:10), forbidden practices (e.g., 2Kings 23:24), and generally anything contrary to the true worship of Israel’s God (e.g., 2Chron. 15:8; Isa. 66:3; Jer. 4:1; cf. forbidden foods [Lev. 11:10, 13, 42] and ceremonial defilement [Lev. 7:21]). The term also includes the prohibition of idol worship (Deut. 7:25; 27:15; 32:16) but can more widely apply to immorality (e.g., Lev. 18:22, 26 27), prophecy that leads to paganism (Deut. 13:13–14), blemished animals offered in sacrifice to Yahweh (Deut. 17:1), and heathen divination (Deut. 18:9, 12).

The “abomination of desolation” (NIV: “abomination that causes desolation”), or “desolating sacrifice,” refers to the desecration of the Jerusalem temple. The description occurs or is alluded to in Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20; 2Thess. 2:4, as well as 1Macc. 1:54–64. These texts seem to attest to two or three stages of fulfillment of the prophecy.

Births in the ancient world were the domain of women. The women who bore children were often assisted in the birthing process by midwives (Gen. 35:17; 38:28; Exod. 1:1520).

Many women utilized a birthing stool (Exod. 1:16). Upon birth, the newborn often was washed with water, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in cloths (Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7, 12). The OT required women to undergo a rite of purification following childbirth (Exod. 13:2, 20; 34:20; Lev. 12:6–8; Luke 2:22–24). This purification lasted forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter and concluded with the sacrifice of both a burnt offering and a sin offering.

Birthing was valued, and women who were considered to be infertile often faced great shame (1Sam. 1:10–11; Luke 1:25). Pain in childbirth was associated with the sin of Eve (Gen. 3:16), and conversely, absence of pain was interpreted as a sign that a woman was particularly righteous. According to Josephus, Moses was born with no pain to his mother, and the Protevangelium of James indicates the same about Mary’s labor with Jesus.

The Bible sometimes employs the language of birth as a spiritual metaphor. In John 3:3–6 Jesus instructs Nicodemus about the need for spiritual birth by explaining that he must be born again. In Rom. 8:22 Paul describes the whole of creation as experiencing the pain of childbirth as it awaits redemption, and in Gal. 4:19 he says that he is in labor for a second time with the Galatians as he desires the formation of Christ in them.

The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.

Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.

On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).

Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.

Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).

Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.

All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.

During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).

The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).

In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).

Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.

Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).

Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).

Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).

In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).

At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).

The OT depicts God as riding on a cloud (Judg. 5:4; Isa. 19:1; Pss. 18:1112; 68:4; 104:3), and as the creator and sender of clouds: “Ask rain from the Lord in the season of the spring rain; from the Lord who makes the storm clouds, and he will give them showers of rain, to everyone the vegetation in the field” (Zech. 10:1 ESV [see also 1Kings 18:44; Pss. 135:7; 147:8; Prov. 8:28; Isa. 5:6; Jer. 10:13]). Divine judgment is pictured as a dark storm (Isa. 30:30; Lam. 2:1; Nah. 1:3; Zech. 1:15).

At several crucial points God manifested his presence among the Israelites in the form of a cloud: in the wilderness (the “pillar of cloud” of Exod. 13:21 and elsewhere), on Mount Sinai (Exod. 19:9; 24:15), in the tabernacle (Exod. 40:34), in the temple at Jerusalem (1Kings 8:10), and frequently in the visions of Ezekiel (e.g., Ezek. 1:4; 10:3).

The NT continues the imagery of the cloud as a manifestation of divine presence in the story of the transfiguration (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:36), and also in depictions of Jesus as a cloud-rider in Matt. 26:64; Rev. 14:14 (see Dan. 7:13). Jesus was hidden by a cloud when he ascended (Acts 1:9), and believers will be caught up by clouds at his return (1Thess. 4:17; Rev. 11:12).

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).

In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).

The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.

Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).

Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).

Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).

With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).

God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).

A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).

While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.

The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).

The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).

God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.

For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and the redeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historical acts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, and especially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only one God (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because “God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himself through various images and metaphors.

The OT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used for God, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”), often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el ’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“God Almighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who sees me” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive names reveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from the personal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings; thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.

The most prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which is translated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At the burning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moses his personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am” (Exod. 3:1315). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH” seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh, who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the God who was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’ testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living” (Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tied to God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life.

Many of God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “The Lord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands, and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leave the guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”

The Christian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but exists in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spirit is one with God (2Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the same divine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called “Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1; 20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1Cor. 8:6; 2Cor. 3:17–18; 2Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work of creation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1Pet. 1:2), indwelling (John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).

The name “James” is a form of the name “Jacob” (Heb. Ya’aqob; Gk. Iakōbos), which was very popular in the first century. In the NT there are five individuals named “James.”

(1)James the son of Zebedee and the older brother of John. He was martyred by Herod AgrippaI in AD 40 (Mark 1:19; 3:17; Acts 12:2).

(2)James the son of Alphaeus we know very little about other than that he is consistently listed among the disciples (Mark 3:18; Matt. 10:3; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13).

(3)James “the younger” (Mark 15:40), whose mother, named “Mary,” appears in Mark 16:1 just as the “mother of James.” In church tradition, he is sometimes identified with James the son of Alphaeus.

(4)James the father of Judas (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) is mentioned only to distinguish this Judas from Judas Iscariot.

(5)James the brother of Jesus was an early leader of the Jerusalem church (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:1331; 21:18; 1Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19; 2:9, 12; Jude 1). A number of Jesus’ family members became prominent leaders in the early Christian movement in Palestine, James being the most prominent.

Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are important here.

The word shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon the Egyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesies God’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as the Syrians execute judgment on Israel (2Chron. 24:24).

The most frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat, “judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just (Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut. 10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). At the waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for the people (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim, “judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel (Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:78) and worshiping false gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).

One key word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar to mishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27; 2Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesus himself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).

Another key word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2; Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment (Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3; 5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2Pet. 2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).

John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).

The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”

In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1Sam. 16:1 13; 2Sam. 2:4, 7).

The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.

The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v.7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v.2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v.8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v.9; see NIV footnote). Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.

Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).

In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arranged and sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3), miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanical universe. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed to overcome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of the existence of God (Mark 8:11 12). Still less are they clever conjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can be otherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in his infinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things to call attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinely ordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence of his glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptive history.

In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are found in greater number during times of great redemptive significance, such as the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performed also during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of the ninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of these eras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God over pagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).

In the NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantly they attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) and the saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the Synoptic Gospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and the conquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30; Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiah of OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preference for the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured around them (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesus performed were such that only the one who stood in a unique relationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naive credulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, false prophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even the elect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernment and not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

The relationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward as sometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nor does faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended to bring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), but not all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesus regarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious (Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than no faith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find its grounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

It is also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in those who came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberately limited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5), many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could not exercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke 14:1–4).

The fact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, his opponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Arguments about his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles but to the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

The ancient Jewish calendar was tied to the phases of the moon, with the months beginning with each new moon. The new moon was celebrated with multiple offerings (Num. 28:1115). Festival days were calculated from the new moon.

The moon figures prominently in prophecy. At the day of the Lord, the sun and the moon will be darkened (e.g., Joel 2:10). While most ancient Near Eastern cultures worshiped the moon, Israel was forbidden such worship (Deut. 4:19).

The account of the moon’s creation recorded in Gen. 1:16 does not mention the moon by name. This is in keeping with the general tone of the creation story, wherein God, almost incidentally, creates the things that were worshiped by contemporary cultures.

A ridge of peaks about two miles long running north-south to the east of Jerusalem. It may also refer to the middle two of these peaks directly east of the temple. Kidron and Gethsemane lie at the foot of the mount. It was so named for the large number of olive trees there in ancient times.

David wept here because of Absalom’s betrayal (2Sam. 15:30). Here the glory of the Lord rested after withdrawal from Jerusalem (Ezek. 11:23). The Lord will return to the Mount of Olives (Zech. 14:4).

Sometimes Jesus spent the night here (Luke 21:37). He customarily withdrew to Gethsemane at the foot of this mount (John 18:2). Thus, on the evening before his trial Jesus and the disciples went to the Mount of Olives (specifically Gethsemane) after leaving the upper room (Matt. 26:30), and it was there that the betrayal by Judas took place.

Jesus’ triumphal entry began on the Mount of Olives (Matt. 21:1), and he discoursed about the future there (Matt. 24:3). After his resurrection, Jesus gathered and instructed his disciples on the Mount of Olives before ascending to heaven (Acts 1:12).

In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.

A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of the one praying.

The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.

Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:1920; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).

Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).

The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor. 14:15).

Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).

Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).

A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).

In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).

Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.

Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).

Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).

Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.

Signs are visible, typically being an object, a mark, an event, or a custom. In addition, signs are symbolic, pointing to things not seen. Signs often reveal or share some quality with the unseen reality to which they point, and so they are a token of that reality. In the Bible, signs typically are caused or instituted by God, and in many cases they are miraculous. However, in a few cases signs are set forth as the work of other gods (as in Deut. 13:12) or as being instituted by merely human design (as in Num. 2:2). In summary, a sign may be defined as something seen that points to something unseen, and that is instituted or created to do so by someone’s intention.

Several examples support this definition. Keeping the Sabbath is a sign of God’s rest after creating the world (Exod. 31:15); the Sabbath rest itself imitates God’s rest. Circumcision is a sign of God’s promise to both Abraham and his descendants; circumcision is also a physical mark that is related to human fertility (Gen. 17:11). The rainbow is a sign of God’s promise not to destroy the world by water and rain; rainbows appear only with rain (Gen. 9:13). (In the original Hebrew text, both the custom of circumcision and the rainbow that appears after the great flood are called “signs.”) The early Passover plagues both bring and warn of judgment, while the healing miracles of Jesus both bring and promise blessing. While signs point to unseen realities, these realities do not diminish the value or importance of the visible world. Instead, the unseen realities themselves are ultimately expressed in the visible world.

In the OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers to humanity in general or to a specific individual. In Ezekiel, for instance, God addresses the prophet himself as “son of man,” possibly indicating his human status compared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique status as God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.

One of the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7 because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in the Gospel tradition. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’s vision (7:114), while the second half contains its interpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13). This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are “like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and “like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesome that it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom (7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient world empires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man” has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthly Israel, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed with authority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people of the Most High” receive in verse27. In this way, the “one like a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthly saints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly being such as the archangel Gabriel (9:21) or Michael (10:13; 12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenly counterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battle on its behalf.

In the NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospels and, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus), is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. Unlike in Daniel, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with the definite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a known figure. In first-century Judaism many Jews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as savior and judge. The OT provides the most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in the Gospels.

The Son of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories: earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings. Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Son of Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in 2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel the Son of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance in Yahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in the Gospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesus also predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raised again. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight of Jesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the little horn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man” represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonable that he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text of Daniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference to Dan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62 the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to his vindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus in Mark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicial responsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33). Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for the return of the Son of Man (12:39–40; 17:22–37; 21:34–36).

Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly temple functioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev. 1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud” (14:14–16).

In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.

The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.

The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).

The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).

According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).

Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).

The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.

The word “star” is used in the Bible to refer to any bright point of light in the night sky; no linguistic distinction is made between stars and planets (cf. 2Pet. 1:19; Rev. 2:28; 22:16).

Stars often are used to illustrate the scope of God’s promises (Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4; Deut. 10:22). They were used throughout the ancient Near East to represent the king, an association also evident in the OT (Num. 24:17; Isa. 14:12). Stars also were named, and some were objects of worship, a practice condemned in Israel (Amos 5:26; cf. Deut. 4:19). Stars were subject to study by foreign sages who sought to predict the future based on their observations, although their efficacy is denied (Isa. 47:13). Nonetheless, the arrival of the Messiah is heralded by a star in the service of its creator (Matt. 2:210). The falling (Rev. 6:13) and the darkening (Joel 2:10; 3:15) of stars are used to depict the coming of the day of the Lord in judgment.

Rocks and stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12; Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as a sign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a marker or memorial (Gen. 31:4650), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). A single rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen. 28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones (Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also be used to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb, such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus (Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).

Stone was used as a construction material, particularly for the temple (1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15; Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundation and for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26; Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22 refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becoming the cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf. Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh. 8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf. 2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai the Israelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed” stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). The phrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, since stone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf. Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); the term “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to an idol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 20:32).

Stones were used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown by hand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam. 17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone” refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typically functioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29; Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts 7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd (Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).

The phrases “precious stones” and “costly stones” refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor. 3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings 10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and for decoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones on the high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on his breastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12, 17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of precious stones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).

Rocks and stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as a rock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common (1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12), hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless (Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone” describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumbling stone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble (Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faith in Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).

While in the OT suffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev. 26:1636; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25; cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by which blessing comes to humanity.

The Bible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17; 6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18; 1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assume that he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4, 20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in the final chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friends for their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writer makes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness. Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume that blindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesus rejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3, 6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).

The NT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in the OT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps. 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presented as the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation, God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8; Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the price for sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set free from sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18). (3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom. 8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet. 2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13), and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to suffer as his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provides hope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil. 3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev. 21:4).

The NT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it has become part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering of believers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel (Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11; 6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16; 2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb. 10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), and the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of the development toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor. 4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).

Suffering is associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal (2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness, sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10); comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8); blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor. 4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James 1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christian suffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character and hope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity and completeness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentary when compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom. 8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7; 4:12–13).

Throughout the Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OT law provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged, and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10, 35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesus regularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3; 19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’ responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom. 12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom. 12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visit prisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.

The sun was worshiped as a god or goddess in all the nations around Israel in OT times, and the polemic against sun worship in Deut. 4:19; 17:3; Jer. 8:2; Job 31:2628 suggests that sun worship also made inroads into Israel. By way of contrast, the OT attests to the sun’s created status (Gen. 1:16) and counts it as subject to God’s control (e.g., Josh. 10:12–13).

In the OT, the sun often is associated with and symbolic of life (e.g., Eccles. 7:11; cf. Ps. 58:8) or justice (Ps. 19:6; Job 38:13; Mal. 4:2; cf. 2Sam. 23:3–4). The darkening of the sun is presented as a sign of judgment heralding the day of the Lord (Isa. 13:10; Ezek. 32:7; Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 8:9; Matt. 24:29; Mark 13:24; Rev. 6:12; 9:2), which many associate with the darkness that fell during the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44).

“Abomination” is a translation of the Hebrewwords shiqquts and to’ebah used primarily in the KJV (NIV usesterms such as “detestable,” “desecrated,” and“unclean”). The term shiqquts is used of idols (e.g.,2 Kings 23:13, 24; Jer. 7:30; cf. Ezek. 8:10), forbiddenpractices (e.g., 2 Kings 23:24), and generally anything contraryto the true worship of Israel’s God (e.g., 2 Chron. 15:8;Isa. 66:3; Jer. 4:1; cf. forbidden foods [Lev. 11:10, 13, 42] andceremonial defilement [Lev. 7:21]). The term to’ebah includesthe prohibition of idol worship (Deut. 7:25; 27:15; 32:16) but canmore widely apply to immorality (e.g., Lev. 18:22, 26–27),prophecy that leads to paganism (Deut. 13:13–14), blemishedanimals offered in sacrifice to Yahweh (Deut. 17:1), and heathendivination (Deut. 18:9, 12).

The“abomination of desolation” (NIV: “abomination thatcauses desolation), or “desolating sacrifice,” refers tothe desecration of the Jerusalem temple. The description occurs or isalluded to in Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14;Luke 21:20; 2 Thess. 2:4; as well as 1 Macc. 1:54–64.These texts seem to attest to two or three stages of fulfillment ofthe prophecy.

First,Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; and 1 Macc. 1:54–64 clearlyspeak of the actions of the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes(175–164 BC) against the Jerusalem temple in 167 BC. He was theyounger son of Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Thename “Epiphanes” means “manifest,” implying“manifest as a god.” Antiochus’s ambition was touse the common culture of the Greeks (Hellenism) to unite the diverseSeleucid Empire. In 167 BC, after being repelled from Egypt by theRomans, Antiochus unleashed his fury on Jerusalem. His soldiersattacked the city on the Sabbath, killing much of the male populationand enslaving the remaining women and children (1 Macc. 1:29–36;2 Macc. 5:24–26). There followed the prohibition of allJewish rites, along with the rededication of the Jewish temple to theGreek god Zeus. Anyone caught reading the Torah, observing theSabbath and dietary laws, or circumcising their male babies waskilled (1 Macc. 1:54–64; Josephus, Ant. 12.248–64).In December of 167 BC the first pagan sacrifice was offered on thealtar in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (1 Macc.1:54).

Antiochusat first met pockets of resistance from faithful Jews who opposed hisorders and were therefore martyred (2 Macc. 6:10–7:42).With Mattathias and his five sons, however, open defiance againstAntiochus’s policies ensued. Mattathias, a priest in the townof Modein, refused to sacrifice to heathen gods and killed the king’sofficer sent to enforce the edict. This incident sparked a Jewishrebellion led by Mattathias’s family (the Maccabees) thatculminated in his son Judas’s defeat of Antiochus’sforces in December of 164 BC. At that time Judas reconsecrated thetemple to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and Israel resumed theobservance of the Jewish law (1 Macc. 4:52–59). Not longthereafter, Antiochus, who had unsuccessfully tried to invade Persia,died of illness in 164 BC (1 Macc. 6:1–17; 2 Macc.1:13–17; 9:1–29; Josephus, Ant. 12.354–59). Thus,the prophecies of Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11 regarding the riseand fall of Antiochus Epiphanes had come true.

Second,Daniel’s prophecy apparently was not completely fulfilled withAntiochus, for Luke 21:20 labels the Roman assault on Jerusalem in AD70 as the “desolation.” In fact, the Roman destruction ofthe Holy City and its temple was an intensification of the OTprediction.

Third,some interpreters would extend the application of the prophecy of theabomination of desolation to the distant future. They contend thatthe ultimate fulfillment of Daniel’s prediction will occur inconnection with the end-time temple to be built by Israel, which theantichrist will desecrate. Supporters of this viewpoint appeal toMark 13:14; Matt. 24:15; 2 Thess. 2:4 (cf. Rev. 11).

Thosewho identify only two stages of fulfillment for Daniel’sprophecy understand Mark 13:14 and Matt. 24:15 to pertain not to afuture end-time temple but to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70 (cf.Luke 21:20). Furthermore, they see in 2 Thess. 2:4 an allusionto the emperor Ca­lig­ula’s (Gaius) plan to place astatue of himself in the Jerusalem temple in AD 40 (which, because ofhis assassination, did not occur).

“Abomination” is a translation of the Hebrewwords shiqquts and to’ebah used primarily in the KJV (NIV usesterms such as “detestable,” “desecrated,” and“unclean”). The term shiqquts is used of idols (e.g.,2 Kings 23:13, 24; Jer. 7:30; cf. Ezek. 8:10), forbiddenpractices (e.g., 2 Kings 23:24), and generally anything contraryto the true worship of Israel’s God (e.g., 2 Chron. 15:8;Isa. 66:3; Jer. 4:1; cf. forbidden foods [Lev. 11:10, 13, 42] andceremonial defilement [Lev. 7:21]). The term to’ebah includesthe prohibition of idol worship (Deut. 7:25; 27:15; 32:16) but canmore widely apply to immorality (e.g., Lev. 18:22, 26–27),prophecy that leads to paganism (Deut. 13:13–14), blemishedanimals offered in sacrifice to Yahweh (Deut. 17:1), and heathendivination (Deut. 18:9, 12).

The“abomination of desolation” (NIV: “abomination thatcauses desolation), or “desolating sacrifice,” refers tothe desecration of the Jerusalem temple. The description occurs or isalluded to in Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14;Luke 21:20; 2 Thess. 2:4; as well as 1 Macc. 1:54–64.These texts seem to attest to two or three stages of fulfillment ofthe prophecy.

First,Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; and 1 Macc. 1:54–64 clearlyspeak of the actions of the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes(175–164 BC) against the Jerusalem temple in 167 BC. He was theyounger son of Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Thename “Epiphanes” means “manifest,” implying“manifest as a god.” Antiochus’s ambition was touse the common culture of the Greeks (Hellenism) to unite the diverseSeleucid Empire. In 167 BC, after being repelled from Egypt by theRomans, Antiochus unleashed his fury on Jerusalem. His soldiersattacked the city on the Sabbath, killing much of the male populationand enslaving the remaining women and children (1 Macc. 1:29–36;2 Macc. 5:24–26). There followed the prohibition of allJewish rites, along with the rededication of the Jewish temple to theGreek god Zeus. Anyone caught reading the Torah, observing theSabbath and dietary laws, or circumcising their male babies waskilled (1 Macc. 1:54–64; Josephus, Ant. 12.248–64).In December of 167 BC the first pagan sacrifice was offered on thealtar in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (1 Macc.1:54).

Antiochusat first met pockets of resistance from faithful Jews who opposed hisorders and were therefore martyred (2 Macc. 6:10–7:42).With Mattathias and his five sons, however, open defiance againstAntiochus’s policies ensued. Mattathias, a priest in the townof Modein, refused to sacrifice to heathen gods and killed the king’sofficer sent to enforce the edict. This incident sparked a Jewishrebellion led by Mattathias’s family (the Maccabees) thatculminated in his son Judas’s defeat of Antiochus’sforces in December of 164 BC. At that time Judas reconsecrated thetemple to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and Israel resumed theobservance of the Jewish law (1 Macc. 4:52–59). Not longthereafter, Antiochus, who had unsuccessfully tried to invade Persia,died of illness in 164 BC (1 Macc. 6:1–17; 2 Macc.1:13–17; 9:1–29; Josephus, Ant. 12.354–59). Thus,the prophecies of Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11 regarding the riseand fall of Antiochus Epiphanes had come true.

Second,Daniel’s prophecy apparently was not completely fulfilled withAntiochus, for Luke 21:20 labels the Roman assault on Jerusalem in AD70 as the “desolation.” In fact, the Roman destruction ofthe Holy City and its temple was an intensification of the OTprediction.

Third,some interpreters would extend the application of the prophecy of theabomination of desolation to the distant future. They contend thatthe ultimate fulfillment of Daniel’s prediction will occur inconnection with the end-time temple to be built by Israel, which theantichrist will desecrate. Supporters of this viewpoint appeal toMark 13:14; Matt. 24:15; 2 Thess. 2:4 (cf. Rev. 11).

Thosewho identify only two stages of fulfillment for Daniel’sprophecy understand Mark 13:14 and Matt. 24:15 to pertain not to afuture end-time temple but to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70 (cf.Luke 21:20). Furthermore, they see in 2 Thess. 2:4 an allusionto the emperor Ca­lig­ula’s (Gaius) plan to place astatue of himself in the Jerusalem temple in AD 40 (which, because ofhis assassination, did not occur).

The English word “angel” refers to nonhumanspirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel”(Heb. malak; Gk. angelos) mean “messenger” and can referto one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterlyloyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). Themessenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).

Messengerssent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were hismessengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).

OldTestament

Thereare few references to angels (plural) in the OT. In heaven theypraise God and worship him (Pss. 103:20; 148:2). God sends his angelsto accompany his people (Gen. 28:12; 32:1) and to protect them(Ps. 91:11) and once sent them to destroy Egypt (Ps. 78:49).

Anangel in human form was referred to as a “man of God”(Judg. 13:6), the same term used for a prophet (cf. 1 Kings13:14).

Angelsevoked fear and wonder. They are described as shining (Matt. 28:3;Acts 12:7). When humans bowed to worship angels, they were rebukedbecause God alone is to be worshiped (Rev. 22:8–9).

Godhimself, not being a part of the created order, cannot be seen. Inorder to communicate with people, he sometimes speaks through a formcalled “the angel of the Lord.” The angel of the Lordappeared to Abraham in human form (Gen. 18; cf. Josh. 5:13–15),but to Moses as fire (Exod. 3:2). When he spoke, it was God speaking(Exod. 3:4, 14). He guided and guarded Israel out of Egypt andthrough the desert (23:20–23). He appeared within the pillar offire or cloud (13:21–22; 14:19), being seen through the pillaron occasion as “the glory of the Lord” (16:7–10;24:16–17; 33:9–11; 40:17, 34–38), and later as hefilled Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 8:11).

Ina series of visions of the glory of the Lord (Ps. 18:7–15;Ezek. 1; Rev. 4:7) we encounter four “living creatures”called “cherubim” (Ezek. 10:20–22) that are notexplicitly identified as angels and whose visible appearance is parthuman and part animal. Their form was placed on the cover of the Arkof the Covenant (Exod. 25:18) and embroidered on the curtains of thetabernacle (26:1). Cherubim guarded the eastern entry into the gardenof Eden (Gen. 3:24), implying that Eden, the place where God appearedon earth, was now excluded from the area allocated to humankind.

InIsaiah’s vision of God’s glory, he describes, literally,“flaming ones” (Heb. seraphim) located above God andcrying, “Holy, holy, holy” (Isa. 6:1–7). All weknow of them is that they had six wings, whereas the cherubim hadfour (Ezek. 1:11). It may be that seraphim are not a separate classof angels but simply a description appropriate to all angels, sinceelsewhere we are told (Ps. 104:4; Heb. 1:7) that God’s angelsare “flames of fire.”

Angelsare also called “holy ones” (Deut. 33:2) and “spirits”or “winds” (Zech. 6:5; cf. Ps. 104:4). Since God’speople are also called “holy ones” (Dan. 7:27; NIV: “holypeople”), it may be difficult to know if a given reference isto angels or people (e.g., Deut. 33:3).

Angelsare first named in the book of Daniel: Gabriel, whose name means“hero of God” (8:16; 9:21; [cf. Luke 1:19, 26]); Michael,whose name means “who is like God?” (10:13, 21; 12:1 [cf.Jude 9; Rev. 12:7]) and who is also called “one of the chiefprinces,” “your prince,” and “the greatprince.” The Hebrew word for “prince” (sar) alsomeans “commander” (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:55) and thusmight refer to Michael’s standing as a commander of God’sangelic armies (cf. Jude 9, where he is called “archangel”).During the intertestamental period, texts outside the Scriptures tendto give more attention to angels in elaborate stories, introducingsuch names as Raphael and Uriel (see Tobit, 1 Enoch, etc.).

IntertestamentalPeriod and New Testament

Duringthe intertestamental period some Jews came to think that angelsranked higher than humans, since the Greeks asserted that anythingphysical was evil and only purely spiritual beings could be holy.Increasingly detailed stories about angels served to distance Godfrom the evils of physical reality. The myth of the fall of theangels arose during this time through a series of writings claimingto come from the pen of Enoch (1 Enoch), stimulating a largenumber of other writings. Some people even went so far as to worshipangels (Col. 2:18).

Somereferences to angels are difficult to understand. In Matt. 18:10Jesus warns people to treat children well because their angels haveconstant access to God. The simplest meaning is that angelicmessengers will tell God what has happened with these children.Rhoda’s reference to Peter’s “angel” as if itwere his ghost probably reflects a local superstition (Acts 12:15) ora sectarian Jewish belief that the righteous become angels when theydie. Paul’s comment that a woman should have “authorityover her own head” (i.e., her head covered) “because ofthe angels” (1 Cor. 11:10) remains something of a puzzle,and his unique reference to the language of angels appears to behyperbole (1 Cor. 13:1).

Paulwarns us that Satan can appear as “an angel of light,”meaning that he would work through one who claimed to bring a messagein accord with the gospel (2 Cor. 11:14). The devil has his“angels/messengers” (Matt. 25:41), although we knowlittle about them.

Angelsdo not marry, reproduce, or die (Matt. 22:30; Mark 12:25; Luke20:35–36). The NT affirms that angels rank below God’speople and serve them (1 Cor. 6:3; Heb.1:4–14; 2:5, 16),as they did Jesus (Matt. 4:11; Mark 1:13; cf. 1 Kings 19:5–7;Luke 22:43). Angels have limited understanding or knowledge of God’splans and purposes (1 Pet. 1:12), although they reveal God’sword (Rev. 1:1). They bring the spirits of God’s people toheaven when they die (Luke 16:22) and implement God’s judgmenton the last day (Matt. 13:39, 49; 16:27; 24:31; 25:31; Mark 8:38;13:27; Luke 9:26; 2 Thess. 1:7; Rev. 14:15–19). Theyrejoice when a sinner repents (Luke 15:10). Christians already standin the greater assembly that includes the angels (Heb.12:22).Eventually, Jesus will welcome his people into the heavenly courtroomin the presence of the angels (Luke 12:8–9; Rev. 3:5). See alsoArchangel.

Brotherhood and Israelite Identity

AncientIsraelite society was fundamentally organized along the lines ofkinship and family. As a result, relations among brothers figureprominently in the biblical construction of Israelite identity, whichis conceptualized through a series of fraternal relationships, oftenrife with conflict: Isaac and Ishmael; Jacob and Esau; and the twelvesons of Jacob, among whom the relationship between Joseph and hisbrothers is pivotal in the history of Israel. Long after thelifetimes of the patriarchs, the Israelites continued to understandthe structure of their society and the relationships between itsconstituent tribes as a complex of fraternal relationships. Thepatriarchal stories of Genesis were a mirror of later social andpolitical realities. If the sibling rivalries of antiquity explainedcompetition between later social groups, the memory of thebrotherhood of those groups also provided a basis for solidarity bothwithin Israel (“You may not put a foreigner over you, who isnot your brother” [Deut. 17:15 ESV]) and with near neighbors(“You shall not abhor an Edomite, for he is your brother”[Deut. 23:7 ESV]). Similarly, the fraternal relationship betweenMoses and Aaron endured in later Israelite society as a model forsynthesizing distinct strands of the religion into a coherent whole.

Forlater Israelite readers of the Bible, the brotherly relationships ofGenesis and Exodus were not simply stories about dead ancestors;rather, they provided a compelling account of the organization ofIsraelite society as they knew it (see Zech. 11:14) and of therelationship between Israel and its neighbors, several of which weredescended from the brothers of the Israelite patriarchs (see Ps.83:6; Amos 1:11; Obad. 10; Mal. 1:2–4). Even though Hiram andSolomon did not trace their relationship back to a common ancestor,they extended the language of the brother alliance to their own(1 Kings 9:12–13).

Biblicalliterature cultivates a predilection for the underdog, elevating along series of younger, disadvantaged brothers: the heroes of Israelincluded Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Gideon (Judg. 6:15), and David (1 Sam.16:11).

Thebrother’s wife represented a special case. Sexual relationswith a brother’s wife were strictly forbidden (Lev. 18:16;20:21; see also Mark 6:18), but under certain circ*mstances one wascompelled to marry a brother’s widow (Deut. 25:5–9; seevariations of this practice in Gen. 38:8; Ruth 4:5–6). Thiscustom underlay a question that Jesus was asked concerning sevenbrothers, each of whom died, repeatedly widowing the same woman(Matt. 22:24; Mark 6:17; Luke 14:26).

Brothersin the New Testament

AmongJesus’ twelve disciples were several pairs of brothers,including Peter and Andrew (Mark 1:16 pars.) and James and John thesons of Zebedee (Mark 1:19). Jesus himself had brothers (Mark3:31–35; John 7:3–5; Acts 1:14), including James, Joseph,Simon, and Judas (Mark 6:3; see also Gal. 1:19).

Inaddition to the story of seven brothers mentioned above, several ofJesus’ teachings drew illustrations from the relationship ofbrothers, including the stories of the prodigal son (Luke 15:11–32)and of the rich man and Lazarus (see Luke 16:28). Jesus singled outthe belittling of a brother as a particularly heinous sin (Matt.5:22). In the Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere, “brother”stands not only for a literal brother but also more generally forone’s fellow human.

Inlight of the OT conception of Israel as a nation of brothers (seeDeut. 17:15 and the discussion above), it is not surprising thatJesus and the NT authors adopted the language of brotherhood todescribe the Christian community. The “brotherhood ofbelievers” (1 Pet. 2:17 NIV 1984) derives from thecommon brotherhood of Christians with Christ himself. Brotherhoodwith Christ depends not on physical descent but on a sharedcommitment to obedience to God (Matt. 12:50; 23:8), and this loyaltyis deeper than that of the literal family, such that it can turn“brother against brother” (Mark 13:12).

Thepredominant form of address in the NT Epistles is “brothers,”and in Acts the Christians are most commonly designated as “thebrothers.” Paul also refers to fellow Jews, includingnon-Christians, as his “brothers” (Acts 22:1; Rom. 9:3ESV). See also Brotherly Love.

The “day of the Lord” is a phrase used frequentlyby the OT prophets as well as by several NT writers. In general, itis used to refer to the coming time when God will intervenepowerfully and decisively in human history to bring about hispromised plan.

TheOT prophets also use other similar phrases such as “the day,”“the day when,” and “that day” to mean thesame thing as the “day of the Lord” (Heb. yom yhwh). Inregard to the future, the prophets speak regularly of imminentjudgment and future restoration, both for Israel/Judah and for thenations. Some of their prophecies find fulfillment after only a fewmonths or years (the Assyrian and Babylonian invasion), and some oftheir prophecies are fulfilled generations later by the return of theexiles under Ezra and Nehemiah. Some are fulfilled by the firstcoming of Christ, and some still await fulfillment. In poeticfashion, the OT prophets often telescope all the multifacetedsignificant prophetic events of the future into one spectaculardramatic time called “the day of the Lord.”

Includedin this “day” are several significant prophetic actionsby God. First, the imminent judgments on Israel and Judah by the handof the Assyrians and the Babylonians are included in the “dayof the Lord” (Isa. 3:18–4:1; Amos 5:18–20).Likewise, merged into the “day of the Lord” is God’sjudgment on the foreign nations that conspired against Israel andJudah (Isa. 13:1–22; Obad. 15). Finally, the prophets will usethe phrase “day of the Lord” to refer to that time ofglorious future restoration and blessing that God will establish forboth Israel/Judah and for the nations (Isa. 11:10–12; Joel3:14–18). In this final context the “day of the Lord”is often tightly interconnected with the messianic promise.

Inthe NT, the phrase “day of the Lord” (Gk. hēmera toukyriou) is used in much the same manner as in the OT. Some aspects ofthe day of the Lord were clearly fulfilled by the first coming ofChrist. For example, the OT prophet Joel prophesies that on the dayof the Lord, God will pour out his Spirit on all kinds of people(Joel 2:28–31), a prophecy that found fulfillment on the day ofPentecost (Acts 2:17–21). So the OT messianic propheciesconnected to the day of the Lord sometimes find fulfillment in eventssurrounding Christ’s first coming (as seen in the NT), whilesome await his future, second coming.

TheNT writers often employ this important phrase from the OT, but theyuse it primarily to refer specifically to the future, second comingof Christ (1Cor. 5:5; 1Thess. 5:2; 2Thess. 2:2;2Pet. 3:10, 12). Just as the OT uses synonyms for the “dayof the Lord,” the NT uses terms such as “that day,”“those days,” “the great day,” or “theday of our Lord Jesus Christ” as synonyms for the “day ofthe Lord,” the time of Christ’s glorious return (e.g.,Mark 13:24; 1Cor. 1:8; Rev. 6:17; 16:14).

The “day of the Lord” is a phrase used frequentlyby the OT prophets as well as by several NT writers. In general, itis used to refer to the coming time when God will intervenepowerfully and decisively in human history to bring about hispromised plan.

TheOT prophets also use other similar phrases such as “the day,”“the day when,” and “that day” to mean thesame thing as the “day of the Lord” (Heb. yom yhwh). Inregard to the future, the prophets speak regularly of imminentjudgment and future restoration, both for Israel/Judah and for thenations. Some of their prophecies find fulfillment after only a fewmonths or years (the Assyrian and Babylonian invasion), and some oftheir prophecies are fulfilled generations later by the return of theexiles under Ezra and Nehemiah. Some are fulfilled by the firstcoming of Christ, and some still await fulfillment. In poeticfashion, the OT prophets often telescope all the multifacetedsignificant prophetic events of the future into one spectaculardramatic time called “the day of the Lord.”

Includedin this “day” are several significant prophetic actionsby God. First, the imminent judgments on Israel and Judah by the handof the Assyrians and the Babylonians are included in the “dayof the Lord” (Isa. 3:18–4:1; Amos 5:18–20).Likewise, merged into the “day of the Lord” is God’sjudgment on the foreign nations that conspired against Israel andJudah (Isa. 13:1–22; Obad. 15). Finally, the prophets will usethe phrase “day of the Lord” to refer to that time ofglorious future restoration and blessing that God will establish forboth Israel/Judah and for the nations (Isa. 11:10–12; Joel3:14–18). In this final context the “day of the Lord”is often tightly interconnected with the messianic promise.

Inthe NT, the phrase “day of the Lord” (Gk. hēmera toukyriou) is used in much the same manner as in the OT. Some aspects ofthe day of the Lord were clearly fulfilled by the first coming ofChrist. For example, the OT prophet Joel prophesies that on the dayof the Lord, God will pour out his Spirit on all kinds of people(Joel 2:28–31), a prophecy that found fulfillment on the day ofPentecost (Acts 2:17–21). So the OT messianic propheciesconnected to the day of the Lord sometimes find fulfillment in eventssurrounding Christ’s first coming (as seen in the NT), whilesome await his future, second coming.

TheNT writers often employ this important phrase from the OT, but theyuse it primarily to refer specifically to the future, second comingof Christ (1Cor. 5:5; 1Thess. 5:2; 2Thess. 2:2;2Pet. 3:10, 12). Just as the OT uses synonyms for the “dayof the Lord,” the NT uses terms such as “that day,”“those days,” “the great day,” or “theday of our Lord Jesus Christ” as synonyms for the “day ofthe Lord,” the time of Christ’s glorious return (e.g.,Mark 13:24; 1Cor. 1:8; Rev. 6:17; 16:14).

Nineteenth-century BC Egyptian reliefs show city gates inSyria-Palestine. Arched gates were found in the second millennium BC.A door (Heb. petakh) often had side posts, a top post (lintel), and athreshold. The temple door was made of juniper wood (1Kings6:34). Doorposts and lintels (Heb. mashqop) are mentioned in thestory of the exodus (Exod. 12:7, 22–23).

Doorsseparated external and internal space. In the OT story of the flood,the ark contained a door (petakh; Gen. 6:16). God closed the doorbehind those inside the ark (Gen. 7:16), separating them from theoutside world.

Inthe Greco-Roman world, doors represented turning points. Janus, theRoman god of doors (Lat. ianua), prevented evil from entering thehome. Janus had two faces, one looking inward and one lookingoutward. The Romans named a month after Janus, Januarius, at the turnof their year, as a door between past and future.

InMatthew, a door (thyra) separated the unprepared from the prepared inkingdom life (Matt. 25:10–12). Likewise, life and destructionwere separated by a door or gate (Matt. 7:13–14; Luke 13:24).The NT records Jesus referring to himself as “the door”(John 10:1–9 ESV, NASB; NIV: “gate”) and, in turn,standing at the door of preparedness by (Matt. 24:33; Mark 13:29) andin fellowship with (Rev. 3:20) his followers.

The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).

Heavenand Earth

Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.

Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.

TheTheology of Land

Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).

Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).

Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.

Inheritance

Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).

Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.

Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).

Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).

Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).

Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).

Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).

Messianic pretenders in the NT who through dramatic “signsand wonders” posed a great temptation to the earliestChristians. False Christs or messiahs are specifically mentionedtwice in the NT, both in sections of the Gospels describing the timeof the return of Jesus Christ. First, Matt. 24:24 speaks of “falsemessiahs and false prophets” who will deceive many throughspectacular miracles. Such figures are so convincing that they areeven a threat to the faith of “the elect,” althoughMatthew has a strong hope that the elect ultimately will not fallvictim to the deceptions of these pretenders. Mark 13:22 is aparallel passage to Matt. 24:24 and uses the same language todescribe false Christs. Both passages are warnings to Christians tobe vigilant in assessing the claims of any person who claims to bethe Messiah returned to judge the world. The false Christs will beknown as such because the actual second coming of Christ will beunmistakable and in the open, whereas the messianic pretenders plotin secret and will come to nothing (Matt. 24:26–28; Mark13:23–29).

Otherfalse messiahs in the earliest days of the church were those claimingto be Israel’s military and political saviors. Amisunderstanding of the nature of the Messiah prompted by anexclusive focus on OT texts promising victory over Israel’snational foes (see Ps. 2; Hag. 2:20–23; Zech. 9:9–10;12:7–13:1) paved the way for militaristic messianic pretendersto draw followers into armed conflict with the Roman authorities(such as Theudas and Judas the Galilean in Acts 5:36–37 and“the Egyptian” in Acts 21:38). Such false messiahs didnot claim divine status, but they were a constant source oftemptation for Jews and Christians in the first century because oftheir promise of victory over imperial Roman oppression.

Messianic pretenders in the NT who through dramatic “signsand wonders” posed a great temptation to the earliestChristians. False Christs or messiahs are specifically mentionedtwice in the NT, both in sections of the Gospels describing the timeof the return of Jesus Christ. First, Matt. 24:24 speaks of “falsemessiahs and false prophets” who will deceive many throughspectacular miracles. Such figures are so convincing that they areeven a threat to the faith of “the elect,” althoughMatthew has a strong hope that the elect ultimately will not fallvictim to the deceptions of these pretenders. Mark 13:22 is aparallel passage to Matt. 24:24 and uses the same language todescribe false Christs. Both passages are warnings to Christians tobe vigilant in assessing the claims of any person who claims to bethe Messiah returned to judge the world. The false Christs will beknown as such because the actual second coming of Christ will beunmistakable and in the open, whereas the messianic pretenders plotin secret and will come to nothing (Matt. 24:26–28; Mark13:23–29).

Otherfalse messiahs in the earliest days of the church were those claimingto be Israel’s military and political saviors. Amisunderstanding of the nature of the Messiah prompted by anexclusive focus on OT texts promising victory over Israel’snational foes (see Ps. 2; Hag. 2:20–23; Zech. 9:9–10;12:7–13:1) paved the way for militaristic messianic pretendersto draw followers into armed conflict with the Roman authorities(such as Theudas and Judas the Galilean in Acts 5:36–37 and“the Egyptian” in Acts 21:38). Such false messiahs didnot claim divine status, but they were a constant source oftemptation for Jews and Christians in the first century because oftheir promise of victory over imperial Roman oppression.

The law warns against those who claim to speak for God butwhose words are not from God. Such false prophets are exposed whentheir predictions go unfulfilled, but even a prophet who makes truepredictions is false if he or she encourages idolatry. False prophetsmust be put to death (Deut. 13:1–5; 18:20–22).

Duringthe monarchy, some false prophets blatantly promoted Baalism (1Kings18:19; Jer. 2:8; 23:13). Others seemed orthodox but, motivated bygreed (Jer. 6:13; 8:10; Mic. 3:5, 11; cf. Luke 6:26), actually saidwhatever people wanted to hear (1Kings 22:6; cf. 2Chron.18:5; 28; Isa. 30:10; Jer. 5:31; Ezek. 22:27–28). A frequentmark of these prophets was that they stressed God’sfaithfulness to promises of blessing while ignoring his faithfulnessto promises of judgment. According to them, Israel would never bedefeated, however much the people sinned (Jer. 6:14; 8:11; 23:17;Ezek. 13:10, 16; Mic. 2:6); the false prophets themselves set anexample of licentiousness (Isa. 28:7; Jer. 23:14–15).Ironically, the complacency that this engendered increased Israel’sdanger (Jer. 14:13–16; 23:19–22; 27:9–18; Lam.2:14; Ezek. 13:5).

Oftendirect confrontations took place between true and false prophets(e.g., 1Kings 18; Neh. 6:14; Jer. 20:1–6; 26:8–11;28–29; Mic. 2:6). The true prophets pleaded with Israel toreject false prophecy (Jer. 23:16; 29:8–9). They pronouncedjudgment on both the prophets and their followers (Isa. 9:14–15;Jer. 2:26; 4:9; 8:1; 13:13; 23:33–39; 50:36; Ezek. 13; Zeph.3:4; Zech. 13:2–6). False prophets would become blind to thetruth they denied and become unable to prophesy at all (Isa. 29:10;Ezek. 7:26; Mic. 3:6). Their false predictions would be frustrated(Isa. 44:25; Jer. 37:19), and in particular the exile that they saidwould never happen was now inevitable (Jer. 14:15–18).

Falseprophecy was as much a danger in the NT era as it was in the OT.Jesus warned that “wolves in sheep’s clothing”would continue to lead many astray. Some would either promote theworship of false messiahs or even pretend to be the Messiah (Matt.24:23–24; Mark 13:21–22), but, as ever, they could beidentified by their “fruit” (Matt. 7:15–23; 24:11).

Paulsaid that any so-called prophet who opposed his own teaching, or whotaught error while claiming that the teaching came from Paul himself,was false (1Cor. 14:37; 2Thess. 2:2; cf. 2Cor.11:4; Gal. 1:8). Luke called Elymas the sorcerer, who opposed Paul, afalse prophet (Acts 13:6–12). More generally, Peter saw allheretical teachers as direct successors of the false prophets of theOT, denying the Lord and exploiting the people for gain (2Pet.2:1). They replicate the error of Balaam (2Pet. 2:15–16).For John, the particular mark of the false prophet was the denialthat Jesus is the Christ (1John 4:1–3). The third figurein the bestial false trinity in John’s Revelation is called“the false prophet” (Rev. 16:13; 19:20; 20:10) andentices men and women to worship the dragon rather than Jesus.

The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelmingpower and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod,has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which inother contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV:“terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy inpossessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation”(Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, itrefers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israeland to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 17–19). Hecarefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin withthe golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them(33:12–23).

God’sglory is often associated with a cloud. Perhaps better stated, God’sglory often is intentionally obscured by a cloud so that people arenot overwhelmed by the radiance of his presence. Such is the case ontop of Mount Sinai as Moses ascends it (Exod. 24:15–18). God’sglory as associated with the cloud is also closely connected to thetabernacle and the temple. When the tabernacle is completed, Godmakes his presence known there by filling it with the cloud thatrepresents his glory (Exod. 40:34–38). Later, the temple too isfilled with God’s glory made manifest in the cloud (1Kings8:10–11). The ark of the covenant, the most potent symbol ofGod’s presence, is also seen as a manifestation of his glory(1Sam. 4:21–22).

God’sglory is overwhelming, and human beings cannot experience itsfullness and survive. Thus, glory is often connected with God’sacts of judgment. For instance, when Korah the Levite and Abiram theReubenite rebel in the wilderness, God appears ready for judgmentagainst the people in the form of the glory-cloud (Num. 16:19–21),though Moses’ intercession spares the bulk of the people fromthe judgment that comes on the leaders of the rebellion (see also16:41).

ThePsalms celebrate God’s glory. Psalm 24 is an example. Theoriginal setting of the psalm is likely the return of the ark of thecovenant from the battlefield. The priest at the head of the army,led by the ark, asks a priest or gatekeeper, “Lift up yourheads, you gates; be lifted up, you ancient doors, that the King ofglory may come in.” The priestly gatekeeper asks, “Who isthis King of glory?” eliciting the response, “The Lordstrong and mighty, the Lord mighty in battle.” Many otherpsalms share this theme or call on Israel to glorify the Lord (seePss. 29:9; 34:3; 63:3; 104:31 as examples).

Theprophets have the privilege of intimate fellowship with God andprofound experiences of God’s glory. Isaiah accepts hiscommission as a prophet in a vision of the throne room of God. Hesees angelic figures calling out: “Holy, holy, holy is the LordAlmighty; the whole earth is full of his glory” (Isa. 6:3).Ezekiel reports an amazing encounter with God in his glory thatcauses him to fall facedown on the ground (Ezek.1:28).

Inthe NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ(John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God.When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory(Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).

The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.

Introduction

Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).

Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.

TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.

Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).

Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.

TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.

NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.

Jesus’Life

Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.

Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).

Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).

Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.

Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.

Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).

Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.

TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.

Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.

Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.

AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.

DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).

TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).

Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).

Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.

Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).

Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).

PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).

InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).

Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).

TheIdentity of Jesus Christ

Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).

Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.

Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).

ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).

Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).

Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.

Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).

Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.

TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.

Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).

Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).

Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.

Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).

Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.

Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).

Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).

SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.

Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).

ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).

Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).

Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).

Jesus’Purpose and Community

Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).

Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.

Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).

Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.

Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).

Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).

TheQuests for the Historical Jesus

Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.

Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.

In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.

Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.

Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.

The kingdom of God is a major theme in the Bible. While thetheme is most fully developed in the NT, its originis the OT,where the emphasis falls on God’s king-ship. God is king ofIsrael (Exod. 15:18; Num. 23:21; Deut. 33:5; Isa. 43:15) and of allthe earth (2Kings 19:15; Pss. 29:10; 99:1–4; Isa. 6:5;Jer. 46:18). Juxtaposed to the concept of God’s present reignas king are references to a day when God will become king over hispeople (Isa. 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Zeph. 3:15; Zech. 14:9). Thisemphasis on God’s kingship continues throughout Judaism andtakes on special significance in Jewish apocalypticism and itsanticipation of the kingdom of God in the age to come, whichabandoned any hope for present history. Only at the end of the agewill the kingdom of God come. This idea of God’s kingdom isfurther developed throughout the NT.

TheSynoptic Gospels

Inthe Synoptic Gospels the phrase “the kingdom of God”occurs over one hundred times in Mark, Luke, and Matthew (where“kingdom of heaven” is a synonym for “kingdom ofGod”). Three views have been defended regarding whether and towhat extent the kingdom of God was present in Jesus’ ministry.In other words, how are we to interpret the phrase “kingdom ofGod” in the Synoptics? The three views are consistenteschatology, realized eschatology, and inaugurated eschatology.

Consistenteschatology.Albert Schweitzer, a biblical scholar from the late nineteenthcentury, first popularized consistent eschatology. Here, “consistent”means consistent with the apocalyptic Judaism of Jesus’ day,which interpreted the kingdom of God as something coming in thefuture. Judaism at the time of Christ divided history into twoperiods: this age of sin, when sin rules, and the age to come, whenthe Messiah is expected to bring the kingdom of God to earth.Schweitzer concluded that an apocalyptic understanding of the kingdomwas foundational not only for Christ’s teaching, but also tounderstanding his life. Thus, Schweitzer maintained that Jesusbelieved that it was his vocation to become the coming Son of Man.Initially, Jesus revealed this messianic secret only to Peter, James,and John. Later, Peter told it to the rest of the Twelve. Judas toldthe secret to the high priest, who used it as the grounds for Jesus’execution (Mark 14:61–64; cf. Dan. 7:13).

Accordingto Schweitzer, when Jesus sent out the Twelve on a mission toproclaim the coming kingdom of God, he did not expect them to return.The Twelve were the “men of violence” (cf. Matt. 11:12)who would provoke the messianic tribulation that would herald thekingdom. Whereas some earlier scholars believed that one could onlywait passively for the kingdom, Schweitzer believed that the missionof Jesus was designed to provoke its coming. When this did nothappen, Jesus determined to give his own life as a ransom for many(Mark 10:45) and so cause the kingdom to come.

Accordingto Schweitzer, Jesus took matters into his own hands by precipitatinghis death, hoping that this would be the catalyst for God to make thewheel of history turn to its climax—the arrival of the kingdomof God. But, said Schweitzer, Jesus was wrong again, and he died indespair. So for Schweitzer, Jesus never witnessed the dawning of theage to come; it lay in the distant future, separated from thispresent age.

Onthe positive side, Schweitzer called attention to the fact that themessage of Jesus is rooted in first-century apocalyptic Judaism andits concept of the kingdom of God. This connection is stillfoundational to a proper understanding of biblical prophecy and theGospels today. On the negative side, Schweitzer’s selective useof evidence and rejection of the historicity of much of the Gospeltradition resulted in a skewed perspective on the present dimensionsof Jesus’ eschatology.

Realizedeschatology.In contrast to futurist eschatology, where the kingdom of God awaitsa final consummation at the end of history, realized eschatologyviews the kingdom of God as already realized in the person andmission of Jesus. The futurist aspects of Jesus’ teaching arereduced to a minimum, and his apocalyptic language is viewed assymbolic of theological truths.

Theperson most responsible for advocating this position is Britishscholar C.H. Dodd. In his 1935 book Parables of the Kingdom, hefocused on Jesus’ teachings that announced the arrival of thekingdom with his coming. For instance, in Luke 11:20 Jesus says, “Butif I drive out demons by the finger of God, then the kingdom of Godhas come upon you” (cf. Luke 17:21; Matt. 13). Eschatologybecomes a matter of the present experience rather than any kind offuture event. The kingdom has fully come in the messianic ministry ofJesus.

Mostinterpreters have criticized Dodd’s realized eschatology forignoring Jesus’ teachings that point to a future consummationof the kingdom (e.g., Matt. 24–25; Mark 13). When all of Jesus’teachings are considered, futurist eschatology balances realizedeschatology. To be sure, the kingdom arrived with Jesus, but Jesushimself taught that history still awaits a final completion. Thekingdom of God is both “already” and “not yet,”which leads us to the third view of the relationship of the kingdomof God to the ministry of Jesus Christ.

Inauguratedeschatology. Thethird view, inaugurated eschatology, is commonly connected with thetwentieth-century Swiss theologian Oscar Cullmann. Like others beforehim, Cullmann understood that the Jewish notion of the two agesformed an important background for understanding the message ofJesus. According to Judaism, history is divided into two periods:this age of sin and the age to come (i.e., the kingdom of God). ForJews the advent of the Messiah would effect the shift from the formerto the latter. In other words, Judaism viewed the two ages asconsecutive. According to Cullmann, Jesus Christ announced that theend of time, the kingdom of God, had arrived within history (see Mark1:15 pars.; esp. Luke 4:43; 6:20; 7:28; 8:1, 10; 9:2, 11, 27, 60, 62;10:9, 11; 11:20; 13:18, 20; 16:16; 17:20–21; 18:16–17,24–25, 29; Acts 28:31). Yet other passages suggest thatalthough the age to come had already dawned, it was not yet complete.It awaited the second coming for its full realization (Luke 13:28–29;14:15; 19:11; 21:31; 22:16, 18; 23:51; Acts 1:6). Hence the adjective“inaugurated” characterizes this eschatology. Such a viewis pervasive in the NT (see, e.g., Acts 2:17–21; 3:18, 24;1Cor. 15:24; 1Tim. 4:1; 2Tim. 3:1; Heb. 1:2; 1John2:18). So for inaugurated eschatology, the two ages are simultaneous:the age to come exists in the midst of this present age. Christianstherefore live in between the two ages until the parousia (secondcoming of Christ).

Wemay break down the data in the Synoptic Gospels regarding the“already/notyet” aspects concerning the kingdom ofGod in this manner: Mark, probably the first Gospel written, recordsJesus’ programmatic statement in 1:15: “The time hascome.... The kingdom of God has come near.”Mark, along with Luke and Matthew, then goes on to demonstrate thatJesus’ miracles, teachings, death, and resurrection inauguratedthe kingdom of God. Yet it is also clear from Matthew, Mark, and Lukethat the final manifestation of the kingdom has not yet happened. Wemay draw on Luke as representative of all three Synoptics. Luke’sGospel indicates that the kingdom was present for Jesus (Luke 7:28;8:10; 10:9–11; 11:20; 16:16; 17:20–21), but it alsoawaited the second coming for its completion (6:20–26; 11:2;12:49–50, 51–53; 13:24–30; 21:25–29;22:15–18, 30). The same dual aspect of the kingdom pertains toLuke’s second volume, Acts. The kingdom was present in Jesus’ministry and now through his disciples (Acts 1:3; 8:12; 19:8; 20:25;28:23–31), but it will not be completed until Christ comesagain (1:6; 14:22).

TheGospel of John

John’sGospel has only three references to the kingdom of God. Nicodemus wastold by Jesus that he needed to be born again to enter the kingdom ofGod (3:3–5). Yet Jesus’ kingdom is not worldly in nature,but spiritual (18:36). Although the Gospel of John contains both thepresent (“already”) aspect and the future (“notyet”) aspect, the focus is clearly on the present. This is whymany scholars label the Fourth Gospel the “Gospel of RealizedEschatology.” This emphasis on the “already” can beseen in John in the following ways: (1)Eternal life, orentrance into the kingdom of God, can be a present possession (3:5–6,36; 6:47, 51, 58; 8:51; 10:28; 11:24–26). (2)Theeschatological promise of sonship is granted to the believer in Jesusnow (1:12–13; 3:3–8; 4:14). (3)The generalresurrection has already begun (5:25). (4)The Spirit, the giftof the end time, currently indwells believers (7:37–39;14:15–31; 15:26–27; 16:5–16; 20:22–23).(5)Final judgment is determined by one’s present responseto Jesus (3:19; 5:22–24, 27, 30–38; 9:38; 12:31–33).(6)The spirit of antichrist has already entered the world sceneto oppose Christ (6:70; 13:2, 27). (7)Jesus’ death on thecross seems to absorb some elements of the messianic woes or aspectsof tribulation. In other words, Jesus’ passion was where theend-time holy war was waged, and his death and resurrection began theend of the forces of evil (15:18–16:11).

Onthe other hand, the Gospel of John also includes some typical future(“not yet”) aspects of eschatology. For example, thefuture resurrection is still expected (5:26–30). Likewise, thefuture second coming of Christ is alluded to (14:1–4; 21:22).Admittedly, however, the “already” aspect of the kingdomof God seems to overshadow the “not yet” perspective inthe Fourth Gospel.

PaulineLiterature

Thephrase “kingdom of God” and/or “kingdom of Christ”occurs twelve times in Paul’s writings.

Rom.14:17 – kingdom of God (present tense)

1Cor. 4:20 – kingdom of God (present tense)

1Cor. 6:9-10 – kingdom of God (2x) (future tense)

1Cor. 15:24 – kingdom of Christ/God (present/future tense)

1Cor. 15:50 – kingdom of God (future tense)

Gal.5:21 – kingdom of God (future tense)

Eph.5:5 – kingdom of Christ/God (future tense)

Col.1:13 – kingdom of the Son (present tense)

Col.4:11 – kingdom of God (present tense)

1Thess. 2:12 – his [God’s] kingdom (future tense)

2Thess. 1:5 – kingdom of God (future tense)

Threeobservations emerge from the chart: (1)The kingdom ofChrist/God is both present and future, already here and not yetcomplete. This is consistent with the Gospels and Acts. (2)Christand God are, in at least two instances, interchanged, suggestingequality of status between them (cf. Eph. 5:5; Rev. 11:15; 12:10).(3)In 1Cor. 15:24 we find the most precise description ofthe exact relationship between the kingdoms of Christ and God: theinterim messianic kingdom begun at the resurrection of Christ willone day give way to the eternal kingdom of God. Such a temporarykingdom is attested to in apocalyptic Judaism and may underlie Rev.20:1–6.

Christianstherefore live in between the two ages, in the messianic kingdom.

Hebrewsand the General Epistles

Hebrewsand the General Epistles continue the theme of the “already/notyet”aspects of the kingdom.

Hebrews.The following ideas associated in Second Temple Judaism with thearrival of God’s kingdom are seen by the author of Hebrews tohave been fulfilled at the first coming of Christ: (1)theappearance of the Messiah of the last days indicates the dawning ofthe kingdom of God (1:2; 9:9–10); (2)the greattribulation/messianic woes that were expected to occur in connectionwith the advent of the Messiah are now here (2:5–18; cf. 5:8–9;7:27–28; 10:12; 12:2); (3)the outpouring of the HolySpirit has happened (6:4–5); (4)the manifestation of theeschatological high priest at the end of history has taken place inJesus (7:26–28), who has also established the new covenant ofthe last days (8:6–13). Compare the preceding statements inHebrews with that author’s explicit mention of the presence ofthe kingdom of God in 12:18–28. And yet the kingdom of God isnot yet fully here. The church continues to suffer the messianicwoes, as is evidenced in the intermingling of Jesus’ sufferingof the great tribulation with the present afflictions of theChristian (2:5–18; 3:7–4:6; 5:7–6:12; 10:19–39;12:1–2; 13:11–16). Furthermore, the exhortations topersevere in the faith that punctuate the book of Hebrews (2:1–4;3:7–4:13; 5:11–6:12; 10:19–39; 12:14–29) area familiar theme in Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.

TheGeneral Epistles.The main message of James is that the last days are here (1:2; 5:3)and with it the messianic woes (1:2–12; 5:1–12).Therefore, believers will need to faithfully endure the greattribulation until the second coming of Christ. But there are twoindications that James also teaches that the kingdom of God hasdawned in the midst of the great tribulation. First, Christiansexperience even now the eschatological quality of joy (James 1:2–3;cf. Joel 2:21–27). Second, Christians also share in theend-time gift of wisdom (James 1:5–8).

FirstPeteris similar to James with regard to its inaugurated eschatology. Thus,the church suffers the messianic woes/great tribulation (1Pet.1:6, 11; 3:13–17; 4:12–19; 5:1–9). Nevertheless,the age to come/kingdom of God has broken into the midst of this age,as evidenced by the eschatological joy and God’s protectivepower that it brings (1:5–6).

SecondPeterdoes seem to stress the “not yet” aspect of the kingdomof God. Thus, the kingdom of God still waits to be entered (1:11), ishindered by end-time apostasy (2Pet. 2), and has been postponed(3:1–10). Yet the “already” aspect of the kingdomis not entirely absent. This is evidenced by the fact that thetransfiguration of Christ on the mountain was a display of the comingpower and glory of the age to come, a glory revealed to the discipleson the mountain and now communicated to all believers (1:16–19).

Judeis devoted to alerting Christians to the reality that they are in themidst of the end-time holy war (vv. 3, 20–23), as can be seenby their struggle with the false teaching of end-time apostasy (vv.5–19). Nevertheless, because believers possess theeschatological gift of the Holy Spirit, they will prevail to fullyenter the kingdom of God (v.20).

TheLetters of John attest to the overlapping of the two ages—thatis, inaugurated eschatology. Thus, on the one hand, the spirit ofantichrist is here (1John 2:18; 2John 7), along with thefalse teaching that it breeds (1John 2:20–29; cf. 2–3John); but on the other hand, the Johannine community has theend-time anointing of the Holy Spirit, which preserves believers fromevil and deception (1John 2:20–21; 3:1–10).Moreover, Christians presently have eternal life through Christ, oneof the blessings of the kingdom of God (1John 5:11–13).

Revelation

The“already/notyet” aspects of the kingdom of God aremanifested in Revelation in the following way: the kingdom of God hasalready dawned in heaven, but it has not yet appeared on earth.Regarding the former, it is clear from 1:9; 5:1–14; 12:1–6that Jesus’ death and resurrection inaugurated the advent ofthe kingdom of God in heaven. Thus, Jesus obediently underwent themessianic woes on the cross and was then raised to heavenly glory,triumphant over the great tribulation. There in heaven, Christ reignsas the invisible Lord over all (including Caesar). But that thekingdom of God has not yet descended to earth is clear in Revelationfrom two present realities. First, even though Jesus has endured thegreat tribulation/messianic woes, his followers continue to face manytrials (chaps. 6–18). There is no deliverance for them fromsuch affliction until the return of Christ in glory (chap. 19). Theonly possible exception to this is the divine protection of the144,000 (chaps. 7; 14). Second, the kingdom of God has not appearedon earth; that event awaits the parousia (chap. 20 [assuming that thepremillennial interpretation of that chapter is the most viablereading]). In all of this, it seems that the messianic woes/greattribulation are the divine means for purging the earth in preparationfor the future arrival of the temporal, messianic kingdom (chap. 20).After Christ’s one-thousand-year reign on earth, this temporalmessianic kingdom will give way to the eternal kingdom of God and itsnew earth and new heaven (chaps. 21–22). It must beacknowledged, however, that interpretations of chapters 20–22greatly vary, depending on whether one takes a premillennial,amillennial, or postmillennial perspective.

Conclusion

Thepreceding data thus seem to confirm that the most apt description ofthe relationship between the two ages and the kingdom of God thatinforms the NT is inaugurated eschatology: with the first coming ofChrist, the kingdom of God/the age to come dawned, but it will not beuntil the second coming of Christ that the age to come/kingdom of Godwill be complete. The church therefore lives in between the times.That is to say, the age to come has broken into this present age, andit is only through the eye of faith that one can now perceive thepresence of the kingdom of God.

The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.

OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).

NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).

Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).

TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).

Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).

Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.

The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.

OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).

NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).

Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).

TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).

Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).

Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.

OldTestament and Jewish Literature

Inthe OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers tohumanity in general or to a specific individual. The general use of“son of man” occurs in poetic texts in which the phrasefunctions as a synonym for “man” or “human being”(Num. 23:19; Isa. 51:12; Pss. 144:3; 146:3). In Ps. 8:4 (ESV) thepsalmist asks, “What is man that you are mindful of him, andthe son of man that you care for him?” Echoing the creation ofman in Gen. 1, “man” and “son of man” in thispsalm have a royal status: being “crowned with glory and honor”and receiving dominion over all of God’s creation (Ps. 8:5–6).Later, in Ps. 80:17, “son of man” refers to the nation ofIsrael. The psalmist supplicates that God would make strong forhimself the “son of man” over Israel’s enemies(80:12–16). In Ezekiel, God addresses the prophet himself as“son of man,” possibly indicating his human statuscompared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique statusas God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.

Oneof the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in theGospel tradition. Scholars debate the date of the composition of thischapter. While some argue for the sixth century BC, others prefer asecond-century BC date during the oppressive reign of AntiochusIVEpiphanes. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’svision (7:1–14), while the second half contains itsinterpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “onelike a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13).This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are“like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and“like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesomethat it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom(7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient worldempires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man”has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthlyIsrael, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed withauthority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people ofthe Most High” receive in v.27. In this way, the “onelike a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthlysaints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly beingsuch as the archangel Gabriel (Dan. 9:21) or Michael (Dan. 10:13;12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenlycounterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battleon its behalf.

Insubsequent Jewish literature, the “one like a son of man”from Dan. 7 becomes quite active, appearing to be a development ofthe static image who is “given authority, glory and sovereignpower” (Dan. 7:14). In 1En. 37–71, a text thatdates from the last half of the first century BC to the first half ofthe first century AD, the “Son of Man” is seated upon histhrone and will judge “the kings and the mighty” who havepersecuted faithful Israel (46:4–8; 62:5). At that point, thefaithful ones (i.e., the holy, righteous, and chosen) will be formedinto a new congregation. In another Jewish text that dates from theend of the first century AD, there is a strong echo of the Danielicson of man. In 4Ezra 13, “something like the figure of aman came up out of the heart of the sea” (v.3a). Unlikein 1Enoch, this figure is a warrior who destroys with firethose who attempt to wage war on him. These texts indicate that atleast two traditions developed and reinterpreted the “one likea son of man” from Dan. 7. He becomes an individual whoexecutes judgment in one tradition, and one who executes destructionin another.

NewTestament

Inthe NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospelsand, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus),is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. The phrase, or a variationof it, also occurs in Acts 7:56; Heb. 2:6; Rev. 1:13; 14:14. Unlikein Daniel or 1Enoch, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with thedefinite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a knownfigure. Because of this and because the Son of Man in 1Enochand 4Ezra have similar functions, many scholars in themid-twentieth century speculated that in first-century Judaism manyJews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as saviorand judge. Others suggested that the significance of the phrase isfound in its Aramaic background, bar ’enash’a, which inother texts means “I,” “man,” “a man,”or “someone.” Despite these alternatives, the OT providesthe most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in theGospels.

TheSon of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories:earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings.Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Sonof Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel theSon of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance inYahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in theGospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesusalso predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raisedagain. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur threetimes (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight ofJesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the littlehorn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man”represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonablethat he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text ofDaniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference toDan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to hisvindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus inMark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicialresponsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33).Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for thereturn of the Son of Man (Luke 12:39–40; 17:22–37;21:34–36).

InActs, the vision that Stephen witnesses confirms that the Son of Manhas indeed been exalted to the right hand of God (Acts 7:56). In theGospel of John, the epithet is used as the object of the verbs “tolift up” and “to glorify,” so that the death ofJesus is a form of exaltation (John 8:28; 12:23; 13:31), whichreflects his current exalted status in early Christian thinking.Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly templefunctioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev.1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud”(14:14–16).

A mineral cluster or rock. Although the terms “rock”and “stone” are occasionally used synonymously, “rock”usually refers to a large geological formation such as a cliff, cave,outcropping, or bedrock, while “stone” is preferred whenthe rock is small enough to be fashioned or handled by human beings.“Stone” can also function as an adjective, referring to amaterial made of stone, or as a verb, referring to the casting ofstones.

Rocksand stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12;Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as asign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a markeror memorial (Gen. 31:46–50), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). Asingle rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen.28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones(Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also beused to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb,such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus(Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).

Stonewas used as a construction material, particularly for the temple(1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15;Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundationand for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26;Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becomingthe cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus(Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf.Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh.8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments wereinscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf.2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai theIsraelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed”stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). Thephrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, sincestone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf.Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); theterm “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to anidol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer.3:9; Ezek. 20:32).

Stoneswere used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown byhand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam.17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone”refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typicallyfunctioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29;Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd(Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).

Thephrases “precious stones” and “costly stones”refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor.3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and fordecoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones onthe high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on hisbreastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12,17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of preciousstones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).

Rocksand stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as arock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common(1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12),hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless(Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone”describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumblingstone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble(Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faithin Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).

The sun was worshiped as a god or goddess in all the nationsaround Israel in OT times, and the polemic against sun worship inDeut. 4:19; 17:3; Jer. 8:2; Job 31:26–28 suggests that sunworship also made inroads into Israel. By way of contrast, the OTattests to the sun’s created status (Gen. 1:16) and counts itas subject to God’s control (e.g., Josh. 10:12–13).

Inthe OT, the sun often is associated with and symbolic of life (e.g.,Eccles. 7:11; cf. Ps. 58:8) or justice (Ps. 19:6; Job 38:13; Mal.4:2; cf. 2Sam. 23:3–4). The darkening of the sun ispresented as a sign of judgment heralding the day of the Lord (Isa.13:10; Ezek. 32:7; Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 8:9; Matt. 24:29; Mark13:24; Rev. 6:12; 9:2), which many associate with the darkness thatfell during the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44).

Prior to his crucifixion, Jesus was subject to a Jewishpretrial examination and a formal trial before the Roman governorPontius Pilate.

Inthe Gospels the primary components of this judicial process are (1)aprivate inquiry made by Annas (John 18:13–24); (2)anexamination before the Sanhedrin (Matt. 26:57–68// Mark14:53–65// Luke 22:54–71); (3)a hearingbefore Pilate (Matt. 27:11–14// Mark 15:2–5//Luke 23:2–5// John 18:29–38); (4)a hearingbefore Herod Antipas (Luke 23:6–16); and (5)Pilate’sverdict (Matt. 27:24–26// Mark 15:15// Luke23:24–25// John 19:16).

Reasonsfor Trial and Historicity

Thereasons for the hastily devised trial are complex and are rooted inthe particular socio-religious environment of Jerusalem at Passover.Jesus’ triumphal entry and his demonstration in the temple wereprovocative actions that implied his messianic authority. The Judeanleadership was fearful that Jesus would create a furor when close toa million Jewish pilgrims were in the environs of Jerusalem atPassover. In this incendiary atmosphere a messianic claim couldprompt riots and revolution and force the Roman authorities tointervene militarily, resulting in a reorganizing of authority amongthe Judean aristocracy (a fear verbalized in John 11:47–53).

Thehistoricity of the trial is questioned on a number of fronts. Wouldthe high priest really convene an emergency nocturnal session of theSanhedrin to do away with Jesus? Perhaps so, if the situation wasdesperate enough! A nocturnal hearing would allow Jesus to be triedby the Roman authorities first thing in the morning and to have Jesustaken care of before most Jerusalemites and pilgrims were awake andaware of what was going on. Another primary objection is that therewere no Christian witnesses present to relay accounts of theproceedings, especially the private hearings. But one can respond bysuggesting that there was probably a desperate curiosity among Jesus’followers and the crowds in general about what actually took place atthe proceedings. Besides the fact that part of the trial took placein public, more information would have been available fromattendants, guards, council members, and even from sympathizers withJesus such as Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea. No one was sworn tosecrecy over what transpired. What seems certain is that Jesus had apretrial hearing with the Sanhedrin and a formal trial before Pilate.

TheJudicial Process

Duringthe judicial processes a number of allegations were raised againstJesus. (1)Being a false prophet who was leading the nationastray (Matt. 27:63–64; Luke 23:2, 14). The background to thisaccusation derives from Deut. 13; 18, concerning false prophets anddiviners who lead the nation into idolatry and make false prophecies.This charge is made explicit in the Babylonian Talmud: “Jesuswas hanged on the eve of Passover.... He is goingforth to be stoned because he practiced sorcery and enticed and ledIsrael astray” (b.Sanh. 43a [cf. 107b]). (2)Speakingagainst the temple (Matt. 26:61; Mark 14:58). What is “false”about the witnesses against Jesus is not that Jesus did not speak andact against the temple (see Matt. 23–24; Mark 13; Luke 21), butthat their testimony did not agree and that they misunderstood Jesusto be saying that he would rebuild another temple of a kind similarto the first. (3)Forbidding the payment of taxes (Luke 23:2).(4)Blasphemy for claiming to be the Son of God (Matt. 26:65;Mark 14:64). (5)Claiming to be the king of the Jews (Mark 15:2;John 18:33).

Accordingto the Fourth Gospel, Jesus initially was led to Annas, at which timehe was briefly interviewed about “his disciples and histeaching” (John 18:19). Annas was the father-in-law of Caiaphasand had been the high priest previously (AD 6–15). High priestevidently was a lifetime office, which is why Annas was stilladdressed as “high priest” (John 18:22–23).

Jesusagain was led out, this time to Caiaphas the current high priest. Atthis point Jesus had a “night trial” before Caiaphas (anact of questionable legality, according to rabbinic law). The basicflow of events includes Caiaphas conducting a cross-examination ofJesus (Matt. 26:59–66; Mark 14:55–64; Luke 22:67–71;John 18:24), Jesus being beaten and abused by his captors (Matt.26:67–68; Mark 14:65; Luke 22:63–65), and then theSanhedrin convening at dawn to ratify the night proceedings againstJesus (Matt. 27:1; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66–71; John 18:28).During the proceedings a number of accusations were brought againstJesus, but the climax was Jesus’ response to the high priestthat he would see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of theMighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven, which combines Dan.7:13 with Ps. 110:1. The notion that Jesus would share the divinethrone with God was deemed blasphemous by the high priest and settledand exceeded the messianic question put to Jesus. The participants ofthe proceedings condemned Jesus as “worthy of death”(Matt. 26:66; Mark 14:64).

Thegathering of the Sanhedrin probably is not a second trial, but morelikely it is for the purpose of ratifying the charges made againstJesus. The decision of the Sanhedrin was that Jesus be handed over toPilate (Matt. 27:2; Mark 15:1; Luke 23:1; John 18:28) for execution,as the Judean leadership did not have the right to exercise the deathpenalty without official approval (John 18:31). Since blasphemy wasnot a capital crime under Roman law, however, the delegationemphasized the political nature of Jesus’ message in order tosecure the death penalty. Before Pilate, Jesus was charged with anumber of offenses, including leading the nation astray, forbiddingpayment of taxes to Caesar, and claiming to be a king (cf. Luke23:2). The main features of this segment of the proceedings are thefollowing: (1)Jesus is charged with making kingly claims;(2)Pilate proposes to release Jesus to the Judean crowd astheir king, but the crowd chooses Barabbas instead; (3)Jesus ishanded over for execution, before which he is mocked and ruthlesslybeaten by the Roman soldiers. In all accounts Pilate is portrayed asfeeble and self-interested, and his apparent sympathy for Jesus wasborn out of his habitual opposition to the designs of the highpriest.

Froma theological perspective, the trial narratives demonstrate that thekingdom of God comes through the kingship of the crucified, and thatJesus is the Suffering Servant of Isa. 53, who was led like a lamb tothe slaughter and pierced for our transgressions.

The NT conception of tribulation is perhaps best summarizedin Paul’s pastoral reminder, “We must go through manyhardships to enter the kingdom of God” (Acts 14:22). The Greekterm used here for “hardship” is thlipsis.

Inthe NT, thlipsis may refer generally to the sufferings andafflictions that occur in the normal course of human living (John16:21; Acts 7:11; 1Cor. 7:28; James 1:27). In its more commonand specific usage, “tribulation” relates directly to theexperience of the people of God as a consequence of their faithfulproclamation of the gospel. Thus, in the parable of the sower,“tribulation or persecution arises on account of the word”(Matt. 13:21; Mark 4:17 ESV).

Oneof the primary aspects of the biblical view of tribulation relates tothe tribulation and suffering of Christ as the pattern for the church(Rev. 1:9). That his followers would suffer tribulation was madeexplicit by Jesus to his followers in the Farewell Discourse (John14–17). There he informs them, “In the world you willhave tribulation” (John 16:33 ESV).

Closelyrelated to the impending tribulation that confronts all believers isthe NT affirmation that the sufferings of Christ serve as the modelfor the tribulation of the people of God. Jesus thus warns thedisciples, “If the world hates you, keep in mind that it hatedme first” (John 15:18; cf. 15:20). Paul continues this conceptin Col. 1:24 (cf. 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10–12; Phil. 3:10; 1Pet.4:13). The tribulation that the people of God experience serves toequip them in a variety of ways. Most significantly, tribulationresults in the transformation of the people of God into the likenessof Christ (Rom. 5:3–5; 2Cor. 4:8–12).

Thebook of Acts records the fulfillment of Jesus’ warning to hisfollowers: it was because of persecution that the church wasscattered (Acts 8:1). Later, Paul notes that he has experiencedtribulation (2Cor. 1:8), as did the church in Thessalonica(1Thess. 1:6) and the recipients of Hebrews (Heb. 10:33). Thereality of “tribulation” is seen in the exhortation ofJohn to the church in Smyrna (Rev. 2:9).

Anotherimportant aspect of the tribulations that await the people of God inthe NT era is the relationship of tribulation to the kingdom of God(cf. Matt. 24:9–14; Rev. 1:9; 7:14). Many hold to the notionthat there will be an intensification of tribulation immediatelyprior to the return of Christ (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:24).

The“great tribulation” of Rev. 7:14 has been interpreted ina variety of ways. Some understand this as a future event limited toseven or three and one-half years. Many others, however, associatethis event with the tribulation, suffering, and affliction of thepeople of God throughout the entire era from the resurrection to thesecond coming. The expression “great tribulation” alludesto Dan. 12:1. The Danielic context incorporates a time of persecutionand suffering among the people of God. The use of “tribulation”in Revelation (Rev. 1:9; 2:9–10, 22; 7:14) corresponds with thepersecution of the people of God. A comparison with Matt. 24:21confirms this conclusion. Therefore, regardless of how one reads the“great tribulation” in Rev. 7:14, as present or futurereality, it appears that this tribulation refers to the suffering ofGod’s people and not to an exemption from it (cf. John 17:15).

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

The designation “Ancient of Days” appears as atitle for the sovereign God seated on his heavenly throne in Daniel’svision of Dan. 7:9, 13, 22. In this symbolic image, the God’swhite clothing symbolizes purity and righteousness, his whitewool-like hair indicates his antiquity, and his fiery throne depictshis awesome power. In Daniel’s vision a second figure, theheavenly “Son of Man” (or, “one like a humanbeing”) comes with the clouds of heaven before the Ancient ofDays and receives authority, glory, sovereign power, the worship ofall nations, and an eternal kingdom (Dan. 7:13–14). In theGospels, Jesus identifies himself as this heavenly Son of Man whowill come with the clouds of heaven (Matt. 24:30; 26:64; Mark 13:26;14:62; Luke 21:27, 69).

Apassage relevant to the Ancient of Days in Dan. 7 is Rev. 1:14–16,where John sees a heavenly figure in whom is combined the features ofthe heavenly Son of Man and the Ancient of Days. Imagerycharacterizing the latter figure (white hair, fiery presence) is nowapplied to Jesus, indicating that the Son of Man is equal to theAncient of Days in glory and authority.

The term “antichrist” (Gk. antichristos) is usedonly four times in the Bible (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John7). John warns his readers that it is already the last hour, and thatjust as they “have heard that the antichrist is coming, evennow many antichrists have come” (1 John 2:18; cf. 4:3).John defines the antichrist as the one who denies that God has comein the flesh in the person of Jesus Christ (1 John 2:22; 4:3;2 John 7).

Theconcept of antichrist-type figures surfaces elsewhere in the NT.Jesus mentions “false messiahs and false prophets” whowill “perform signs and wonders to deceive, if possible, eventhe elect” (Mark 13:22). Paul speaks of a “man oflawlessness” who will “oppose and will exalt himself overeverything that is called God or is worshiped, so that he setshimself up in God’s temple, proclaiming himself to be God”(2 Thess. 2:3–4). In Rev. 13 John describes the mostfamous antichrist figure of all: the “beast coming out of thesea.” Throughout the OT the false-prophet tradition (e.g.,Deut. 13; 18; Jer. 23; Ezek. 12–14) describes religiousindividuals from within the community who attempt to deceive God’speople. Also, there was a common belief in an oppressive ruler fromoutside the community who would persecute the righteous (e.g., Dan.8; 11). By the late first century, when Revelation was written,people would have been familiar with a host of pagan rulers who hadexalted themselves as gods (the king of Babylon [Isa. 14], thepharaoh [Ezek. 29], Antiochus Epiphanes [Dan. 11], and Roman emperorssuch as Caligula, Nero, and Domitian). The evil-ruler tradition andthe false-prophet tradition seem to converge in Rev. 13 as the beastfrom the sea (the antichrist) and the beast from the earth (the falseprophet).

Mostscholars agree that the original beast described in Rev. 13 was aRoman emperor (either Nero or Domitian) who demanded to be worshipedas God. Supported by a second beast, the cult of Caesar worshipenforced by priests throughout the empire, the imperial systemdemanded that Christians choose between two opposing confessions:Caesar is Lord or Jesus is Lord. More specifically, Revelationindicates that the “beast coming out of the sea” isempowered by Satan (vv. 1–2, 4), masquerades as Christ (vv. 1,3, 12, 14), accepts worship as a god (vv. 4, 8), wields extensivepower (vv. 4, 7), blasphemes and slanders God (vv. 1, 5–6), andruthlessly persecutes the saints (v. 7). The “beast comingout of the earth” (emperor cult) is also empowered by Satan(vv. 11, 14), promotes the worship of the first beast (vv. 12,14–15), performs signs and wonders designed to deceive (vv.13–15), and causes those who refused to worship the first beastto be put to death physically (v. 15) or economically (vv.16–17). But in spite of their final effort to take God’splace and conquer God’s people, Christ will return to destroythe antichrist and the false prophet in the lake of fire (17:8;19:19–21).

The book of Daniel contains gripping stories and complexvisions of the end of history. While the former are easy to followand provide clear moral lessons to readers, the latter are quitedifficult to interpret. Set in a time when the people of God wereliving under the thumb of powerful pagan nations, the purpose of thebook is to provide comfort and hope in the knowledge that God is incontrol and, in spite of present difficulties, will provide victoryfor his people.

HistoricalBackground

Authorshipand date.The book does not name an author. The first six chapters are storiesabout Daniel in a foreign court, and the last six chapters narratefour visions received by Daniel.

Thetraditional view holds that the events described in the book tookplace in the period 605–537 BC, and that the book, no matterwhen it was written, faithfully reflects actual events and thevisions that Daniel received. Although the book nowhere insists thathe is the author, it is possible, if not likely, that we are to thinkof Daniel as the author of at least the visions. Indeed, in 12:4 theangel tells him, “Roll up and seal the words of the scroll.”Daniel himself or a later inspired author could have given the bookin its final form.

However,some scholars reject the idea that the book accurately reflectsevents of the period in question. They point to historical problemssuch as questions concerning the identity of Darius the Mede as wellas the specificity of the prophecies particularly and argue that thebook must have been written by an anonymous person after thepredicted events. Indeed, they point to what they believe is anactual prophecy at the end of the book (11:40–45) that did nottake place to suggest that the book was written in the mid-160sBC.

Thosewho believe that God could provide Daniel with a glimpse of thefuture do not have a problem with the precision of the description offuture events. Further, 11:40–45 may be a picture of theantichrist in the far-distant future. It seems best to side with thetraditional understanding of the book of Daniel as having beenwritten early and reflecting an accurate depiction of Daniel’slife.

AncientNear Eastern historical context.The book of Daniel begins with a Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in thethird year of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, dated to 605 BC.Nebuchadnezzar, who according to Babylonian sources had just becomeking of Babylon, demands tokens of Judean submission: vessels fromthe temple and hostages from the royal family and nobility, includingDaniel and three friends. Since 626 BC the Babylonians have been onthe uprise, displacing Assyria as the superpower of the day. Theaction of Dan. 1–4 takes place in Babylon during the reign ofthe powerful empire builder Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel lives longer thanthe king, and Dan. 5 is set during the rule of a man named“Belshazzar.” The story concerns the end of theBabylonian Empire, and it was initially puzzling that Babyloniansources rediscovered beginning in the nineteenth century AD namedNabonidus as the last king of Babylon rather than Belshazzar.However, texts discovered more recently have resolved the problem,demonstrating that Belshazzar (known in the Babylonian texts asBel-shar-usur) was the son of Nabonidus and his coregent: Belshazzarruled in the city of Babylon while Nabonidus ruled from an oasis(Teima) in what is today Saudi Arabia. The visions recorded in Dan.7–8 are dated to the time of this Belshazzar.

Danieleven survived the fall of the Babylonian Empire and found a place ofimportance in the Persian Empire (Dan. 6), which succeeded it. Thefirst ruler of this Persian Empire was Cyrus, though Dan. 6 speaks ofa king named “Darius.” Some believe this is a historicalmistake because there was a King Darius who ruled some years afterCyrus, but it is likely that “Darius” is either anothername for Cyrus or perhaps a subruler in charge of Babylon. Thevisions found in Dan. 9–12 are dated to the time ofDarius/Cyrus.

Danielalmost certainly died during the reign of Darius/Cyrus, but hisprophetic vision extended beyond even the Persian Empire, which endedwith the conquest by the Greek Alexander the Great in 333BC.

Text.An interesting feature of the original text of Daniel is that it iswritten in two languages. Daniel 1:1–2:4a; 8:1–12:13 isin Hebrew, while Dan. 2:4b–7:28 is in Aramaic. This extensiveuse of two languages is unique in a single biblical book. Althoughthe Aramaic begins when the text announces that the astrologersanswered the king in Aramaic, no persuasive reason has been offeredfor why the text continues in Aramaic until the end of chapter7.

Theevidence from the eight partial and fragmentary manuscripts of Danielfrom the DSS supports the antiquity and authenticity of the text thatis used to translate the book into modern languages, includingEnglish. It also supports the use of two languages in the book.

EarlyGreek versions of Daniel have additions that are found in modernBibles that include the Apocrypha. The first of these is the Prayerof Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men, which is found afterDan. 3:23. The story of Susanna appears in some Greek manuscriptsbefore Dan. 1 and in others after Dan. 12. Bel and the Dragonconcludes the book.

LiteraryConsiderations and Outline

Thereare two major parts of the book. The first half (Dan. 1–6) iscomposed of six stories of Daniel in a foreign court, and the secondhalf (Dan. 7–12) is composed of four apocalyptic visions. Amore detailed outline of the book is as follows:

I.Daniel in a Foreign Court (1:1–6:28)

A.Daniel and his friends in the Babylonian court (1:1–21)

B.God’s wisdom versus Babylonian wisdom (2:1–49)

C.God saves the three friends from the fiery furnace (3:1–30)

D.Nebuchadnezzar’s pride takes a fall (4:1–37)

E.Writing on the wall (5:1–31)

F.Daniel in the lions’ den (6:1–28)

II.Four Visions (7:1–12:13)

A.The four beasts and the one like a son of man (7:1–28)

B.The ram and the goat (8:1–27)

C.The seventy weeks (9:1–27)

D.The scope and end of history (10:1–12:13)

Thestories of the first six chapters may be identified as courtnarratives that focus on Daniel and the three friends and theirinteractions with the rulers. Such interaction often brings them intoconflict with the Babylonian wise men and other officials. Of course,Daniel and his friends are successful in the various court contestsand conflicts because their God is with them.

Thevisions of the last six chapters have been called “apocalyptic.”Apocalyptic literature has a distinct form from even the type ofprophecy that we read in a book such as Jeremiah (see Apocalyptic).In Jeremiah, God gives a message to the prophet, who is told tocommunicate with the people so that they might change their behaviorand thus avoid punishment. God never speaks to Daniel. He has avision, and an angel interprets the vision for him. He is told not topreach the message of the vision. The purpose of such visions is notto elicit repentance but rather to assure God’s faithful peoplethat, although they are presently being oppressed, God is with themand will win the victory in the end.

Apocalypticl*terature features an intense use of striking images. Beasts ariseout of a sea, a humanlike figure rides a cloud chariot, and a goatbutts heads with a ram. Although this imagery strikes modern readersas odd, it communicated clearly to its ancient audience, which knewthat the sea and its monsters represented evil and chaos, the cloudrider was God on his storm chariot, and the ram represented Persiaand the goat Greece.

TheologicalMessage

Thoughvaried in genre with six stories and four visions, the basic messageof the book of Daniel is clear and repeated in each: in spite ofpresent difficulties, God is in control and will have the victory.The book intends to instill in its readers a sense of calmness in themidst of crisis: although persecuted and/or living in a culture toxicto their faith, not only can they survive but they can thrive.

Daniel1 illustrates this theme among the stories. Young Daniel and hisfriends are forced to go into exile in Babylon. Though faithful, theyare subjected to the pagan curriculum of the court to become wisem*n. Such study would have included astrology and other forms ofdivination. Furthermore, they are required to eat a diet that willassure that they become robust. But by refusing to eat the rich foodprescribed by the king and consuming only vegetables and water, theygive God room to work. Thus, when later they are proclaimed to be“better nourished” than those who eat the king’sdiet, they know that it is not because of the king’s diet butbecause of God. They are also more learned than others in the court.Daniel 2 demonstrates how their exceptional wisdom is not the resultof their Babylonian education, but because of God’s wisdom. Soin spite of their present situation, they not only survive but alsothrive, as evidenced by their promotions in the king’s court.

Daniel7 illustrates this important theme among the apocalyptic visions. Thevision begins with the description of hybrid beasts that arise fromthe sea. They are evil kingdoms that oppress the people of God.However, the vision looks beyond the present to the arrival of the“one like a son of man” on his cloud chariot, who willlead the saints of the Most High God in a victorious battle againstthese forces of evil.

NewTestament Connections

Daniel’svisions look to the far future when God will appear and bring historyto a close with a tremendous victory over the forces of evil. Notsurprisingly, Daniel’s imagery permeates the apocalypticmaterials in the NT that speak of the second coming of Jesus Christ.For instance, in the book of Revelation evil is imaged as a seamonster (Rev. 13) that reminds the reader of the four sea beasts ofDan. 7. Jesus, the one who defeats this epitome of evil, is called“Son of Man” in the NT and is pictured as appearing on acloud at the end of time (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27; cf.Rev. 1:7).

The Roman general who conquered Jerusalem in AD 70 and laterreigned as emperor of the Roman Empire (r. AD 79–81). Hisfather, Vespasian, preceded him as emperor (r. AD 69–79), whilehis brother Domitian succeeded him in the role (r. AD 81–96).These three rulers are commonly referred to as the Flavian dynasty, adesignation deriving from their family name, “Flavius.”Titus distinguished himself relatively early in life through hismilitary service in Germany and Britain. Roman historians tell thestory of him saving the life of his father during this period. Hisfirst wife died soon after the marriage, and Titus quickly remarried,though this second marriage was also brief, ending in divorce.

BothTitus and his father were military commanders during the Romancampaign to put down the revolts in Judea, beginning in approximatelyAD 66. Vespasian was the supreme commander in the conflict, but whenhe departed for Rome in AD 69 to become emperor, Titus filled hisfather’s role as military leader in the region. In the springof AD 70, Titus began an attack on Jerusalem, and within a few monthshis forces had taken complete control of the city, destroying thetemple in the process. Aspects of this incident are reflected in thespeech of Jesus known as the Olivet Discourse (Matt. 24; Mark 13;Luke 21). As emperor, Titus generally was well respected by hiscontemporaries for his accomplishments, and Roman historians lookedupon his brief reign with favor.

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

Evangelism is the proclamation of the “evangel”(Gk. euangelion), the good news, of Jesus Christ. The content of theevangel includes Jesus’ birth, which was announced as good newsto Zechariah by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:19) and by the angels tothe shepherds (Luke 2:10). The good news speaks of the reality ofJesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:18), is described as a message ofgrace (Acts 20:24) and reconciliation to God through the sacrificedbody of Christ (Col. 1:22–23), and includes the expectation ofa day of divine judgment (Rom. 2:16). Paul preached the gospel (fromOld English gōdspel, “good news”) message, which heclaimed had its origin with God, not humans (Gal. 1:11–12). Hesummarizes this message in 1Cor. 15:3b–5: “thatChrist died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he wasburied, that he was raised on the third day according to theScriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve.”The introduction to the Gospel of Mark (1:1) may indicate that thiswritten gospel could serve evangelistic purposes.

Evangelisticefforts in the New Testament.Numerous figures throughout the NT participated in evangelisticendeavors. John the Baptist’s preaching about the comingMessiah is described as evangelism (Luke 3:18). Evangelism was acharacteristic activity of Jesus’ own ministry (Matt. 4:23;9:35; Mark 1:14; Luke 20:1), which focused on proclaiming the adventof the kingdom of God (Luke 4:43; 8:1) and at times was targetedtoward the poor (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22). Jesus commanded thosewho follow him to engage in evangelism. He sent out the twelveapostles for evangelistic purposes (Luke 9:2), and he issued theGreat Commission to this end (Matt. 28:18–20).

Themissionary enterprise recorded in Acts demonstrates the efforts ofthe earliest Christians to spread the gospel. The apostles inJerusalem (Acts 5:42) proclaimed the gospel in spite of greatopposition and persecution, and believers who were scattered outsideJerusalem because of persecution spread the gospel in new locales(8:4). Philip evangelized Samaritans and an Ethiopian (8:12, 35). Theministry of Paul and Barnabas is characterized as preaching the goodnews (14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18). Philip, one of the sevenchosen to distribute food (6:5), was given the name “theEvangelist” (21:8). Timothy, additionally, is said to be Paul’sfellow worker in evangelism (1Thess. 3:2; cf. 2Tim. 4:5).

Evangelismwas a central part of Paul’s ministry (Rom. 1:9; 1Cor.1:17; 15:1–2; Eph. 6:19; 1Thess. 2:2, 9). He indicated anexplicit interest in sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Rom. 15:16;Gal. 1:16; 2:7; Eph. 3:8) and with those who had never heard it (Rom.15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16), and he expressed a desire to preach the gospelat Rome (Rom. 1:15). Paul wrote of the necessity of evangelism inorder for people to be saved (Rom. 10:15), and he preached the gospelmessage free of charge (1Cor. 9:16, 18; 2Cor. 11:7). Helisted the role of the evangelist in the church along with apostles,prophets, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).

Goaland methods of evangelism.Evangelism’s goal is to spread the gospel across ethnic andreligious boundaries until it reaches all nations (Mark 13:10; Col.1:23). To this end, Acts details an intentional effort by theearliest Christians to share the gospel with those who came from bothJewish and non-Jewish backgrounds. Acts 8:25 records Peter and John’sevangelistic efforts in Samaritan villages, and Acts 15:7 identifiesPeter as an evangelist to Gentiles. An outreach specifically toGentiles is chronicled in Acts 11:20, and Paul’s intentionalprogram of traveling from city to city further contributes to thisgoal (Rom. 15:19).

Theevangelists recorded in the NT demonstrate a range of methods andapproaches to sharing the good news. They often began with a point ofcontact from the religious worldview of their audience. For instance,Philip used Scripture as a starting point in speaking with anindividual who was familiar with some portion of it (Acts 8:35).Similarly, when addressing Jews, Paul preached Jesus as thefulfillment of various OT Scriptures (Acts 13:32–41), but whenpreaching the gospel to the Greeks in Athens, he acknowledged theirreligiosity and their previous worship of one called “anunknown God” (17:22–23). Evangelists sought opportunitiesto gain an audience, and Paul even took advantage of an illness tostay with the Galatians and share the gospel with them (Gal. 4:13).Finally, much of the evangelistic work in the early church wascoupled with miraculous signs and wonders, which served toauthenticate the message being proclaimed (Rom. 15:19; 1Thess.1:5).

The desire to harmonize the differences between the canonicalGospels can be traced back to the second century, when Tatian (asecond-century apologist) combined the four Gospels into one documentknown as the Diatessaron (Greek for “out of four”). Thiscombined Gospel was used in the Syrian churches in the third andfourth centuries until it was replaced by the four canonical Gospelsin the fifth century.

MaterialCommon to More than One Gospel

Allfour Gospels portray Jesus as leading a group of disciples,preaching, healing, performing miracles, being crucified, and beingraised from the dead. Matthew was written for a Jewish or JewishChristian audience, reminding them that Jesus fulfills the HebrewScriptures. Mark was written for a Gentile audience, focusing more onnarrative than on teaching and portraying Jesus as a man ofmiraculous, powerful action. Luke shows Jesus as one who isespecially concerned for the poor and those on the fringes ofsociety. John explains that Jesus, the eternal Word of God, is not asecond god, but rather the one true God, sent by the Father to renewIsrael.

Peoplewho are familiar with the content of the Gospel stories often confusethe information from different accounts. For example, there isactually no single story in the Bible about a “rich youngruler”: only Matthew describes the man as young (Matt. 19:20),and only Luke mentions that the man was a ruler (Luke 18:18).

Somematerial is found in all four Gospels, including information aboutJohn the Baptist, the miracle of the feeding of the five thousand,and the story of the crucifixion and the resurrection (although theindividual accounts of the resurrection differ). Some materialappears in three Gospels, especially in Matthew, Mark, and Luke.These three Gospels have therefore been labeled the “SynopticGospels” (syn= together, optic= view). Storiesfound in all three Synoptic Gospels include the transfiguration(Matt. 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36); thehealing of Jairus’s daughter and of a woman with a flow ofblood (Matt. 9:18–26; Mark 5:21–43; Luke 8:41–56);and the rich young ruler (Matt. 19:16–30; Mark 10:17–31;Luke 18:18–30). The details do not agree in every respect ineach account, but clearly they represent the same story and exhibitlinguistic dependence on the same source(s).

Asignificant amount of material appears in two of the four canonicalGospels. Matthew and Mark have the story of a Syrophoenician woman(Matt. 15:21–28; Mark 7:24–30), and both Mark and Luketell the story of a widow’s offering to the temple treasury(Mark 12:41–44; Luke 21:1–4). The most significant bodyof teachings and sayings found in two Gospels is the material sharedby Matthew and Luke. Each of the Gospels contains material that doesnot appear in any other Gospel. Mark has the smallest amount of suchmaterial, John the largest.

TheGospel of John and the Synoptic Gospels

Basedon a study of the material common to more than one Gospel, and thematerial unique to one Gospel, John’s Gospel usually is seen asdistinct from the other three. The most likely explanation for thisis that John was written later, with knowledge of the other Gospels,and therefore the author saw no need to repeat most of this material(except what was central to his purposes). Some of the distinctivefeatures of John’s Gospel are the use of terminology such as“love,” “light,” “life,” “truth,”“abide,” “knowledge,” “world,”and the “I am” statements. Furthermore, certain Synopticterms are either rare or absent—for example, “kingdom,”“demons,” “power,” “pity,”“gospel,” “preach,” “repent,”“parable,” “tax collector.” More so than theSynoptics, John is written from the vantage point of the resurrectionand with the aid of hindsight as well as the Spirit. This is why theauthor of John’s Gospel does not refrain from adding commentaryto Jesus’ words (e.g., 2:21–22; 7:39; 11:51–52;12:16).

TheSynoptic Gospels are more interrelated. In passages that appear inthese three Gospels, there is often very close verbal agreementbetween them (e.g., the healing of the leper [Matt. 8:2; Mark1:40–44; Luke 5:12–14]; the question of Jesus’authority [Matt. 21:23–27; Mark 11:27–33; Luke 20:1–8]),implying a common source. In many sections that are found in allthree Synoptic Gospels, two agree extensively and the third diverges(e.g., Matt. 20:24–28 and Mark 10:41–45 against Luke22:24–27). When two Gospels agree and one disagrees, Matthewand Mark often agree against Luke, and Luke and Mark often agreeagainst Matthew; but Matthew and Luke do not often agree against Markand never do so in regard to the order of material. At other points,the Gospel accounts diverge quite significantly when referring to thesame events. The infancy narratives in Matthew are quite differentfrom those in Luke. The two accounts of the parable of the weddingbanquet (Matt. 22:2–14; Luke 14:16–24) differ sosignificantly that it is difficult to decide whether they are twoversions of the same parable or two different stories. Reports on theresurrection diverge across all four Gospels.

Itis possible that these similarities and differences can be tracedback to the oral presentation of the gospel. Apostolic preachingwould have formed itself into set ways of retelling the events ofJesus’ ministry through repetition. These accounts may havebeen told originally in Aramaic before being translated into Greek tofacilitate the Gentile mission. The authors of Matthew, Mark, andLuke could have been drawing from this common tradition in writingtheir Gospels. There is probably a degree of truth to this theory,but it cannot explain all the data. The theory does not account forsimilarities and differences in the order of events, nor does itexplain why Matthew and Luke always return to Mark’s orderafter they deviate from it. A common oral tradition does notadequately explain similar editorial comments (e.g., cf. Matt. 24:15with Mark 13:14), which suggest a common written source.

Somehave argued that the apostles or others wrote records of the words ofJesus (memorabilia), which were collected and written down topically,from which the Synoptic Gospels were composed. As the church grewnumerically and geographically, various collections of thesememorabilia were made. Again, this is not beyond the realm ofpossibility; however, working against this theory is the completeabsence of any reference to such records. Furthermore, as with theoral theory, it does not explain agreement in the order of material.It does, however, highlight the probability that the evangelists wereusing written sources.

MarkanPriority and Q

Onthe assumption that the writers of the Synoptic Gospels employed awritten source(s), several scholars have tried to reconstruct thisoriginal written Gospel from the material in the Synoptic Gospels.This document, which scholars call the Urevangelium (German for“original Gospel”), ended up bearing very closesimilarities with the Gospel of Mark. This is not surprising, sincenearly all of Mark is repeated in Matthew and Luke. This led to thebelief that Mark was the most primitive Synoptic Gospel, and that itwas a common source for Matthew and Luke.

Thisbelief in Markan priority, which has gained increasing popularitysince the nineteenth century, has helped explain the similaritiesamong the Synoptic Gospels. Traditionally, Matthew was thought to bethe first Gospel to be written, hence the order of the Gospels in ourNT. This belief in Matthean priority was upheld by several earlychurch writers such as Augustine, who saw Mark as an abridgement ofMatthew (Cons. 1.2). Augustine may have been more influenced by thetraditional ordering of the Gospels than by an analysis of theGospels themselves. Mark’s Gospel does not read like anabridgement; it is the shortest Gospel, but individual sections of ittypically are longer and more detailed than in Matthew.

Thereare many reasons why the priority of Mark is probable. It is theshortest Gospel, containing 661 verses, whereas Matthew contains1,068 and Luke contains 1,149. When their content is compared,97.2percent of Mark is paralleled in Matthew, and 88.4percentof Mark is paralleled in Luke. It is easier to understand Matthew andLuke as using Mark and choosing to add additional material to it thanto think of Mark as using Matthew, Luke, or both and deciding to omitmaterial such as the birth narratives and the Sermon on the Mount.Mark has simpler Greek, which includes an extensive use of thepresent tense, redundancies (e.g., Mark 1:32: “that eveningafter sunset”; cf. Matt. 8:16: “when evening came”;Luke 4:40: “at sunset”), and various colloquialisms(e.g., the word for “mat” in Mark 2:4). Mark alone amongthe Gospels uses Aramaic terms such as abba (14:36), talitha koum(5:41), and ephphatha (7:34), although Matthew also mentions Eloi,Eloi, lama sabachthani (Matt. 27:46; Mark 15:34). It is easier to seehow Luke and Matthew would have “improved” Mark than thereverse.

Ifwe accept the priority of Mark, and Luke and Matthew’sdependence upon it, there are still the sections of Matthew and Lukethat bear strong similarities with each other. From an analysis ofthe text of Matthew and Luke, it appears that these two evangelistsdid not know each other’s works. If one knew of the other’swork, why the divergence in some material such as the birthnarratives? Alongside this, however, there are close similarities inother material: Matthew has 4,290 words that have parallels in Lukebut not in Mark, and Luke has 3,559 words that have parallels inMatthew but not in Mark. The solution appears to be that Matthew andLuke were dealing with some material that they held in common, andthat each of them also had other material that he drew onindependently. The material held in common is commonly called “Q”(from the German word Quelle, meaning “source”); thematerial unique to Matthew is called “M” and that whichis unique to Luke, “L.” Whether Q was a document isunknown, although it is more likely to be a collection of sources, asis also the case with MandL.

Manyscholars argue that Q was a written rather than an oral source, basedon the exact word parallels in the Greek text (e.g., Matt. 6:24 andLuke 16:13, where 27 of the 28 words are exactly the same). Thepresence of doublets (double accounts of the same incident) inMatthew and Luke may show dependence by the respective evangelists onboth a Markan and a Q source (e.g., Luke 8:16; cf. Mark 4:21; Luke11:33; cf. Matt. 5:15). Some scholars have tried to explain thesources geographically: Markan material originated in Rome, Qmaterial in Antioch, M in Jerusalem, and L in Caesarea, but suchspeculations are far from proven.

Summary

Withinall of this, in seeking to understand the harmony of the Gospels, itis important to be aware of what we do not know. Many of thesolutions focus on a history behind the text to which we do not haveaccess. Modern literary critics have tended to focus more on the textit*elf than its prehistory. There is merit in this because it affirmsthe priority of the text and allows the reader to understand how apart of the text functions within the larger literary unit. It alsoallows the evangelists to be more than collectors of sources, to havewritten distinctive theological accounts. Their different emphasesmay explain some of the differences between the Gospels. Thisapproach, however, also has its dangers. Some who focus on the textover its original intent distance the text from the author’spurpose and therefore open the door for subjective interpretationsthat deny the difference between a correct and an incorrect readingof the text. It also raises the danger of reading an ancient textthrough modern eyes, losing sight of the original context.

Thechurch has been well served by four Gospel traditions. The fact thatesteem for the text has stopped overharmonization has been of greatbenefit, as the readers of the Gospels can appreciate various huesand emphases between the different accounts of the ministry of Jesus.

Temples have always been the domain and house of the godsthroughout the ancient Near East. As the abode of the God of Israel,the Jerusalem temple served the same purpose. The temple played animportant role in the social, religious, and political life ofancient Israel. No archaeological remains of the actual templebuilding exist today; nevertheless, the temple has dominated biblicalscholarship. The Jerusalem temple was originally built by Solomon in953 BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 586BC. After the exile, the temple was rebuilt and then rededicated byZerubbabel in 515 BC (Ezra). Herod the Great significantly expandedand changed the temple, but it was eventually destroyed by the Romansunder the direction of Titus in AD70.

Thebiblical text refers to the temple in several ways: temple, house ofGod/Yahweh, and sanctuary/shrine. These terms all refer to thedwelling or house of God and an area of sacredness. The sources forinformation on the temple are biblical texts, Josephus, and theMishnah (tractate Middot). The most detailed accounts of theconstruction of the Solomonic temple are found in 1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 2–4. In addition to these major sections, thereare several references to building activities and repairs to thetemple throughout the OT. Another major text is Ezek. 40, but it isdebated whether this represents the actual temple or an ideal temple.There are several references in the NT that directly or indirectlyrefer to functions and specific components of the Temple Mountcomplex.

ArchaeologicalInvestigation

Thelocation of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem has been undisputed.Current scholarly opinion locates the temple on the spot of thecurrent Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock. Today the largerenclosed area is referred to as the harem esh-sharif (the noblesanctuary). Explorers in the nineteenth century did not attemptarchaeological research of the temple itself, although variousexplorations focused on recording visible features and conductingsoundings along the sides of the Temple Mount. Even after theunification of Jerusalem in 1967, with three major excavations in thecity, no archaeological investigation of the temple was conducted.Due to the political and religious variables associated with theMuslim holy sites, there are no foreseeable archaeologicalinvestigations. A recent renovation of the Mosque of Omar, located onthe southern end of the Temple Mount, removed truckloads of earth.Unfortunately, there was no archaeological supervision of the projectand no archaeological excavations of the site were conducted.

Inspite of the limited archaeological excavations, several popularaccounts of alternate locations of the temple have been proposed.Most of these place the temple somewhere other than the Dome of theRock, but none of these proposals has garnered scholarly support torival the current location.

FirstTemple: Temple of Solomon

Throughoutthe ancient Near East, temples served as monumental edifices thatprovided divine legitimacy for the king or dynasty. While templesshould be considered part of the religious sphere of society, theirconstruction, maintenance, and associated activities are interlinkedwith the political sphere. The construction of the temple inJerusalem is also linked to state formation by the Israelites. TheSolomonic temple ushered in a new period of religious activity amongthe ancient Israelites. Previously, Israel had worshiped at variousshrines and sanctuaries, and its central religious practice wasassociated with the tabernacle. With the establishment of themonarchy, dynastic kingship and centralized authority were created.Although the biblical text credits Solomon as the Israelite king whobuilt the temple, the project was initiated under David. David unitedthe Israelite tribes, captured Jerusalem and made it the capital ofthe kingdom, and built a royal palace. He made Jerusalem thepolitical capital but also the religious center when he brought theholy ark, the visible symbol of Yahweh’s presence, to Jerusalem(2Sam. 5–6). David intended to build Yahweh a permanentdwelling (2Sam. 7:2).

Location.Thebiblical text preserves multiple traditions and accounts of thelocation and acquisition of land for the temple. In the ancient worldthe city temple was commonly located on the acropolis (highest point)of the city. The temple is located on the highest point of a ridgewhere the OT city of Jerusalem is located (Jebusite city, later theCity of David). There are two accounts of the purchase of the land:the threshing floors of Araunah (2Sam. 24:18–25) and ofOrnan (1Chron. 21:15–30; 2Chron. 3:1 [here the NIVsupplies “Araunah,” but see, e.g., the NET, NASB, ESV]).It is possible that Araunah and Ornan were kin, but most likely theyare the same person, with Samuel and Chronicles using variant names.However, the two accounts disagree further on the amount paid for theland: fifty silver shekels (2Sam. 24:24) and six hundredshekels of gold (1Chron. 21:25). One theory explains thisdiscrepancy as arising from two separate transactions. First, Davidpurchased the threshing floor to build an altar to Yahweh, and helater purchased the whole mountain to build a temple. Later traditionassociates the hill where David built an altar with the locationwhere earlier Abraham built an altar to sacrifice Isaac (MountMoriah).

Constructionand dimensions.Solomon started to build during the fourth year of his reign(2Chron. 3:1), and construction lasted for seven years. Theplan of the temple was revealed to Solomon during a night in thesanctuary at Gibeon (2Chron. 1:7–13). The king obtainedbuilding materials, specifically cedar from Lebanon (2Chron.2:3–10), and construction and design expertise from Phoenicianartisans (1Kings 7:13–14, 45). The Solomonic templeconsisted of a tripartite plan similar to other temples inSyro-Palestine during this period. There are two accounts for theconstruction and dedication of the first temple (1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 3–7). Both accounts offer similar descriptionsbut there are some differences in measurements. Most scholars accountfor these differences by viewing the dimensions in the book ofChronicles as reflecting the temple measurements after Hezekiah’srepair and rebuilding projects.

Thebasic plan was a rectangle, 70 cubits long (120ft. 7in.)and 20 cubits wide (34ft. 5in.) on a straight axis facingeast; the height was 30 cubits (51ft. 7in.). Thesemeasurements refer to the inside dimensions (1cubit=20.67 in.). The three distinct architectural units formed threedistinct rooms where various functions were performed and alsoreflected levels of holiness. The three units were the ’ulam(“porch” or “vestibule”), the hekal (“cella”or “nave”), and the debir (the innermost sanctuary, themost holy place). In the biblical accounts the whole building iscalled the “house [bayit] of the Lord,” and the word“temple” is used for the hekal. There was a three-storystructure built around the sides and back of the temple (see below).

Theporch was 10 cubits (17ft. 2in.) by 20 cubits (34ft.5in.). The account in Kings does not provide its height; theaccount in Chronicles gives the height as 120 cubits. In itsdescription and measurements in the biblical text, the porch isconsidered separate from the temple (bayit, house). The porchcontained two pillars of bronze: yakin (“he will establish”)on the right side and bo’az (“in strength”) on theleft (see Boaz; Jakin). The pillars were bronze, 18 cubits (35 cubitsin Chronicles) in height, with elaborate double capitals. The bottomcapital was 5 cubits, round in shape, and surrounded by nets withpomegranates. Above this was another capital, 4 cubits high, shapedlike a lily.

Thehekal was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide and was the only partwith windows (1Kings 6:4). The debir was a cube, 20 cubits perside. The debir is also called the “holy of holies.” Thedifference in height (10 cubits shorter than the hekal  )is due to the rise in the bedrock. This measurement is confirmedtoday in the interior of the Dome of the Rock.

Thewalls of the house (hekal and debir) were built of whole stonesdressed in the quarry, as “no hammer, chisel or any other irontool was heard at the temple site while it was being built”(1Kings 6:7). The roof was made of cedar wood (1Kings6:10), with crossbeams and intersecting boards. The stone walls werecovered from ground to ceiling with boards of cedar wood, and thefloor was made of cypress wood, covered with gold (1Kings6:30). The wood had carved engravings of cherubim, palm trees, andopen flowers. The hekal and the debir were separated by a partitionmade of olive wood.

Thethree-story structure surrounding the temple was constructed of cedarwood. Each story was 5 cubits. The width of the first floor was 5cubits, the middle 6 cubits, and the top 7 cubits. This structure wasentered from the right side of the temple, and the floors wereconnected by openings with ladders. This structure formed chambersand storage for the activities of the priests.

Infront of the temple was a courtyard surrounded by a wall. Inside thecourtyard was a great bronze basin (known as “the Sea”).This basin rested on the backs of twelve bronze oxen. Ten smallerbasins in groups of five were set on elaborate wheeled stands. Alarge altar also was located in this courtyard.

Inthe holy of holies stood two large cherubim of olive wood coveredwith gold. They were 10 cubits in height, with a wingspan of 10cubits. These cherubim stood over the ark of the covenant. In thehekal were the golden altar, the golden table, and ten lampstands.

History.FromSolomon to Zedekiah, the temple was used for political and religiouspower shifts. Kings of Israel raided the temple treasury to pay offinvaders, closed the temple, or placed idols in the temple in periodsof apostasy. During periods of reform they repaired and rebuilt thetemple and its furnishings.

UnderRehoboam’s reign, Shishak king of Egypt ransacked the templeand removed all its treasures (1Kings 14:25–28; 2Chron.12:9). Asa and his father, Abijah, added to the treasure of thetemple with silver, gold, and other vessels (2Chron. 15:18) butused these to pay Ben-Hadad of Syria to help him fight Baasha king ofIsrael (16:2–3). Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (2Chron. 17)ruled during a time of prosperity and reform. It was under his rulethat the court in front of the temple probably was enlarged (20:5).The sons of Athaliah broke into the temple and worshiped Baal. Duringthe reign of Amaziah the temple was plundered by Jehoash king ofIsrael (2Chron. 25). Uzziah ruled for a long period ofprosperity (787–736 BC) but attempted to burn incense on thealtar in the hekal, a ritual kept solely for the priests. A laterking, Jotham, built the Upper Gate of the house of Yahweh (2Kings15:35; 2Chron. 27:3). Jotham’s son Ahaz took the silverand gold from the temple and sent it as a present to the king ofAssyria. He moved and changed various vessels of the temple and shutit* doors (2Chron. 28:24).

Hezekiahson of Ahaz ruled during a time of prosperity and revival. Hereopened the temple doors (2Chron. 29), cleaned out the temple,and created a 500-cubit-square mount around the temple. Hezekiahconducted many building projects in Jerusalem and reforms throughoutthe land. He also “stripped off the gold with which he hadcovered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the Lord” topay a ransom to Sennacherib king of Assyria (2Kings 18:16). Dueto his building activities, most scholars attribute major changes tothe temple to Hezekiah’s reign. The differences in the templedescriptions in Kings and Chronicles probably reflect two differentperiods of history concerning the temple (e.g., Kings represents thetemple during the period of Solomon, while Chronicles represents thechanges to the temple by Hezekiah). Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son,undid the work of his father by building altars in the temple.

Thelast resurgence of the temple in the life of the people of Israel wasunder Josiah. He instigated a reform throughout the land and acleansing of the temple. Hilkiah the high priest found a copy of the“Book of the Law” (2Kings 22:8). After a reading ofthe law in the public square, a collection was taken from the peopleto be given to workers for temple repair. The Babylonians took someof the temple treasure (2Chron. 36:7) under the rule ofJehoiakim. The last two kings of Judah, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, alsolost temple treasure to Babylon, and eventually the temple wasdestroyed during the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2Chron.36).

SecondTemple: Zerubbabel and the Temple of Herod the Great

Zerubbabel’stemple.Solomon’s temple was rebuilt by the Jews who returned fromexile under the decree of the Persian king Darius (Ezra 6:1–5).The temple was built under the direction of the governor Zerubbabelwith the support of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:13–18)and was dedicated in 515 BC. This would have been a poorer temple dueto the poverty of the inhabitants of Judah. During the Hasmoneanperiod (152–37 BC) a platform and a fortress were constructed.Not much is known about the temple during this period. It would begreatly eclipsed by the work of Herod the Great.

Templeof Herod the Great.Herod invested heavily in building projects throughout his kingdom.He was keen on bringing Hellenistic culture to the Jews but also onupholding traditional Jewish religious practices, especially when itcame to the temple. Just as the first temple mimicked the religiousarchitecture of the ancient Near East, the second temple reflectedthe massive sacred architecture of the classical world. John 2:20indicates that thus far it had taken forty-six years (beyond Herod’slife) to build. Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple,but he was able to make additions to the outside, alter its outerfurnishings, and expand the compound and platform to match thegrandeur of Greco-Roman temples. Today scholars refer to all thesebuildings and the temple as the Temple Mount complex.

Herodexpanded the space of the Temple Mount by building a “box”around the mountain. This was a massive wall with varying height dueto the topography. This wall is still visible today, especially thecurrent religious site of the Western Wall. This construction allowedfor a level platform with various buildings and plazas on the top.The leveling was done by filling in the gaps and buildingsubterranean arches in low areas. One of these areas is located onthe southeast corner (the underground arched supports are erroneouslycalled “Solomon’s Stables” today). The whole areawas surrounded by a colonnaded portico (Solomon’s Colonnade[John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12]). On the northwest corner was theAntonia Fortress (Acts 21:35), and the southern end of the complexcontained the Royal Stoa, a basilica-style building (four rows offorty columns) that housed the Sanhedrin and had other religious andpolitical functions (Luke 22:66).

Thiscomplex became the religious and political center of the city ofJerusalem, and Herod built many auxiliary components. Severalentrances and bridges from the Upper City were built. The publicentered the complex from the south. A southern complex consisting ofmonumental stairs (210 feet wide) and entrance and exit gates (Doubleand Triple Gates) took pedestrians from the outside up throughunderground tunnels to the top of the temple compound. These stairsbecame an area for public forums. In addition, several shops (Mark11:15–17) were built around the complex, as well as a largebathhouse for ritual cleansing. In order to facilitate the manysacrifices, Herod built a complex hydrologic system that broughtwater into the city. This was accomplished by various aqueducts andstorage pools. The Temple Mount had many cisterns and a new pool onthe northeast end of the Temple Mount complex, the Pool of Israel.Although Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple itself,he was able to enlarge the facade, added storage chambers andauxiliary buildings, build a second story above the temple, andconstruct several courtyards and various buildings associated withthem. In keeping with the earlier tripartite level of holiness, theseadditional temple buildings and courtyards retained the same lineardegree of holiness and exclusion.

Josephuscalled Herod’s temple “a structure more noteworthy thanany under the sun” (Ant. 15.412). Herod built a new monumentalfacade in front of the existing temple and added a second story.Herod’s temple measured 100 cubits (172 ft.) in all threedimensions. It stood on top of a foundation that gave it addedheight. It had two stories, each one 45 cubits (77.5 ft.) in height.On the roof was a parapet, 3cubits in height, which containedgolden spikes, 1 cubit in height, to prevent birds from perching onthe roof’s edge. The temple was decorated with gold overlay.The opening between the ’ulam (“porch”) and thesanctuary was 20 cubits high and 10 cubits wide (34 ft. by 17 ft.).There were two sets of double folding doors. The sanctuary containedthe golden menorah, the table of the bread of the Presence, and thealtar of incense. Between the sanctuary and the holy of holies was alarge tapestry (veil) (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). The holyof holies had gold plating on its walls. Around the temple werethirty-eight cells built in three stories (m.Mid. 4:3–4).All of the cells were interconnected by openings between adjoiningcells and by one in the ceiling to reach the cell above. To thenorth, between the outer wall of the temple and the cells, was aninner stairway with access to the top of the temple and the upperchamber (second story of the temple). The upper chamber allowedpriests to service the holy of holies. They would be suspended inbaskets, covered on three sides, through openings in the floor toclean the gold overlay in the holy of holies.

Thetemple courtyard was surrounded by various gates and buildings. Thesewere specific entrances and buildings that the priests used for thevarious functions of the sacrifices and offerings (Mark 13:1–2).These included the Kindling Gate, Wood Chamber, Gate of theFirstlings, Golah Chamber, Water Gate, Chamber of the Hearth, Gate ofJeconiah, Rinsing Chamber, Gate of the Offering-Women, Salt-ParvaChamber, and Gate of the Flame-Singers. In front of the temple weretwo narrow courts: the court of the priests to the west and the courtof the Israelites (men) to the east. Inside the temple court was thealtar of burnt offering. During the Second Temple period it was astationary, square-shaped altar constructed of unhewn stones.According to the Mishnah (m.Mid. 3:1), this altar was 32 cubitssquare at the base and about 10 cubits in height. A ramp 32 cubitslong, also built of unhewn stones, led the priests up to the altarfrom the south. A laver, the great bronze basin known as “theSea,” stood west of the altar between the altar and the templeporch (’ulam) for the washing of hands and feet. North of thealtar was the place of slaughtering.

Thecourt of the women, 135 cubits square, was in front of the temple tothe east. This court had four smaller courts, one at each corner.Women could enter the temple only as far as this court. It wassurrounded by a colonnade. Inside these porches (porticoes) werethirteen collection boxes for money. This is where Jesus saw the poorwidow donating two copper coins (Luke 21:1–3). The court hadfour large lampstands nearly half the height of the temple. TheMishnah states that each of the corner chambers was 40 cubits squareand roofless. The central area was exposed to the sky, with a porticoaround each courtyard—typical of Mediterranean buildings. Thechamber to the immediate right of the court’s entrance(northeast) was the chamber of the woodshed, where priests examinedlogs for impurities (e.g., parasites). To the left (southeast) wasthe chamber of the Nazirites. To the northwest was the chamber of thelepers. A leper who had been healed brought an offering and thenbathed in this chamber before coming to the priests for theperformance of rituals. In the southwest corner was the chamber ofthe house of oil. Between the court of the women and the temple courtwas the Nicanor Gate. Fifteen semicircular steps led up to this gate.It was on these steps that the Levites sang the fifteen Psalms ofAscent (Pss. 120–134).

Surroundingthe temple and the court of the women was a balustrade or railingthat served as a boundary beyond which no Gentile could enter.Outside this boundary was the court of the Gentiles (see John12:20–22; Acts 21:27–29). Archaeologists have found aninscription that forbids Gentiles, upon pain of death, to enter anyfarther. Herod’s temple was destroyed in AD 70. The TempleMount continued to be used and considered sacred, as Roman temples,Crusader churches, and Muslim shrines marked the sacredness of thelocation.

Roleof the Temple

Thetemple was the dwelling place of Yahweh. It was the domain of thereligious leaders, priests, and Levites. It also represented therelationship/covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Variouskings used the temple for their political maneuvering and attempts toshift the religious worship of the nation. The temple was the visiblepresence of God and embodied the political and religious aspirationsof the people. The temple sat on top of a sacred mountain.

Duringturbulent political times the temple was central to God’sprotection and judgment. From the Babylonian and Roman periods, twotexts spoke of a future temple. Ezekiel’s vision saw afuturistic temple measuring 500 cubits square surrounded by a massivecourt measuring 3,000 cubits square (Ezek. 40:1–47:12). Amongthe DSS, the Temple Scroll also talks about a rebuilt temple. Todaymany Christians and Jews look to a future rebuilding of the temple.

The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).

Heavenand Earth

Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.

Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.

TheTheology of Land

Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).

Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).

Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.

Inheritance

Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).

Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.

Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).

Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).

Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).

Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).

Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).

The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.

Introduction

Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).

Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.

TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.

Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).

Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.

TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.

NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.

Jesus’Life

Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.

Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).

Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).

Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.

Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.

Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).

Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.

TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.

Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.

Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.

AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.

DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).

TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).

Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).

Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.

Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).

Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).

PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).

InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).

Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).

TheIdentity of Jesus Christ

Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).

Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.

Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).

ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).

Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).

Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.

Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).

Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.

TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.

Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).

Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).

Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.

Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).

Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.

Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).

Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).

SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.

Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).

ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).

Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).

Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).

Jesus’Purpose and Community

Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).

Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.

Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).

Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.

Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).

Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).

TheQuests for the Historical Jesus

Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.

Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.

In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.

Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.

Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.

The Olivet Discourse is Jesus’ sermon predicting theJewish War, the destruction of the temple, the fall of Jerusalem inAD 70, and the coming of the Son of Man to judge and to save. It isfound in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 24:1–25:46; Mark 13:1–37;Luke 21:5–36). The name derives from the Mount of Olives,overlooking Jerusalem and the temple, the place where Jesus taughthis disciples this material.

Allthree Synoptics place the discourse following scenes of confrontationwith the Jewish leadership. Matthew’s account is the mostdramatic. Jesus rebukes the scribes and Pharisees in Matt. 23,culminating with the accusation that they are responsible for “allthe righteous blood that has been shed on the earth” (v.35).He pauses to lament for Jerusalem, then declares the temple, which hecalls “your” house, desolate. As he leaves, the disciplesremark on the stones of the temple compound. Jesus then predicts thetotal destruction of the temple. This will indicate the Son of Mancoming with power and great glory (Matt. 24:30) in judgment ofapostate Israel.

Jesususes apocalyptic language to describe coming events: earthquakes,famines, betrayal, signs in the sun, moon, and stars. These are allthe birth pains. Christians will face persecution. They will bebrought before the authorities, but they will be given what to say bythe Holy Spirit. They will be put to death and hated by all nations.False prophets and false messiahs will emerge and attempt to lead theelect astray. Jesus’ repeated command is for the disciples tobe alert, as no one knows the time, not even the Son. It will bepossible, though, to know when the time is approaching, just as theapproach of summer can be predicted by observing the fig tree.

Matthewappends three parables to the end of the discourse concerningpreparedness and reward: the ten virgins, the talents, and the sheepand the goats. The virgins were unprepared when the bridegroomarrived and were shut out of the banquet. The talents were entrustedto servants by a man going on a journey. When he returned, herewarded those who had invested wisely. The last parable is anadaptation of Ezek. 34:11–31, a messianic passage where Godwill gather his scattered sheep. Jesus declares himself to be the onewho judges between the sheep. In Ezekiel the sheep are judged fortheir sins: muddying the water, trampling the food, butting the weaksheep. In keeping with his extended ethical teaching in the Sermon onthe Mount, Jesus will judge even omissions of proper care of eachother: not feeding strangers, not visiting those in prison. Themessage is clear: disciples must be prepared for the return of Jesusat any time, using their gifts wisely and treating the least among uswith care.

Somesay that Jesus is answering two questions from the disciples: “Whenwill this (the destruction of the temple) happen?” and, acompletely separate question, “What will be the sign of your(second) coming?” But Jesus is only recorded as speaking aboutthe temple here, and following the rebuke of the Pharisees, it isclear that he speaks of judgment in connection with the Jewishleaders. Luke makes this clearer in his frank substitution: whereMatthew (24:15) and Mark (13:14) record “when you see ...the abomination of desolation,” Luke (21:20) writes, “whenyou see Jerusalem being surrounded by armies,” a clearreference to AD 70. Matthew (24:28) hints at the same idea: “Whereverthe carcass is, there the eagles [perhaps from the Roman emblem] willbe gathered together” (NKJV). None of the three accounts seemto contemplate answers to two separate questions.

The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.

OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).

NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).

Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).

TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).

Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).

Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.

A literary device whereby an author writes under a name otherthan his or her own (a pseu-donym) or a book is deliberately assignedto a fictitious author (pseudepigraphy). In the case of ancientJewish practice, the name borrowed was usually that of some famousworthy of the past (e.g., Enoch, Ezra), with the aim of bolsteringthe credentials of the book to which the name was attached. This is acommon phenomenon in the Apocrypha (e.g., 2Esdras, Baruch,Epistle of Jeremiah). It is even more common in the large collectionof Second Temple texts now known as the Pseudepigrapha (e.g.,1Enoch, Odes of Solomon, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs).(See also Pseudepigrapha.)

Scholarscontinue to debate the morality of pseudonymity and whether it isproper for a pseudonymous book to be placed within the canon ofScripture. Some excuse pseudonymity as a mere stylistic device orexplain it as a culturally accepted convention. Others put a positivespin on the phenomenon, and so, for example, claim that in thePastoral Epistles literate disciples of Paul sought to apply hisideas to newly developing situations in the years following hisdeath. Some argue that such deception for a good cause is legitimatebecause it helped to gain a hearing for orthodox teaching. Otherstotally reject pseudepigraphy, viewing it as little better thandeception and forgery and thus unworthy of literature viewed asinspired by God. The last approach seems to be most consistent with ahigh view of Scripture.

Overthe last two hundred years a number of biblical books have beenidentified by some scholars as pseudonymous, notably Daniel in theOT, and in the NT six letters in the Pauline corpus—Ephesians,Colossians, 2Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles (1–2Timothy, Titus)—together with 2Peter and Jude.

OldTestament

Certainlyone mark of Jewish apocalyptic works is pseudonymity, and the book ofDaniel is often viewed by critical scholars as no exception to thisrule. It is difficult, however, to see how the name “Daniel”would have served to give the OT book named after him the desiredauthority, which is a major motivation for attaching a pseudonym.

Apartfrom the book itself, we essentially know nothing about this Daniel,whom it describes as living in Babylonia during the exile. In thebook of Ezekiel we have two references to a Daniel (Ezek. 14:14, 20).In this passage the prophet says that when the land sins against God,“even if these three men—Noah, Daniel and Job—werein it, they could save only themselves by their righteousness.”There is, in addition, the further reference in Ezek. 14:16 to “thesethree men,” obviously referring to the same three men. Ezekielspeaks of these three men as embodiments of righteousness, but thefact that this Daniel figure is placed between two ancients (Noah andJob) suggests that he too is a figure of antiquity, not acontemporary of Ezekiel.

Ezekiel28:3 taunts the king of Tyre: “Are you wiser than Daniel? Is nosecret hidden from you?” Here “Daniel” (the Hebrewtext at Ezek. 28:3 actually reads “Danel”) obviously is aproverbial figure of wisdom, and this implies that he may have beenwell known in Tyre and therefore could well have beenSyro-Phoenician. There is in fact a “Danel” figurementioned in Ugaritic literature (before 1200 BC). On the other hand,the Daniel of the book of Daniel is not a patriarch like Enoch, Noah,and Job, nor is he a famous figure like Ezra or the assistant to aprophet, as Baruch was to Jeremiah. Daniel is known only through thebook that bears his name. In other words, the usual motivationexplaining the use of a pseudonym does not apply to the canonicalbook of Daniel.

Also,the closing up and sealing of the book (Dan. 8:26; 12:4) is no meredevice necessitated by using as a pseudonym the name of a mansupposedly living in the time of Cyrus. Rather, the sealing signifiesthat much of the content of the later chapters of the book will beunderstood only when the predicted events begin to take place at afuture time, with the book placing Daniel (its presumed author) inthe sixth century BC.

NewTestament

ThePastoral Epistles.With regard to the Pastoral Epistles, all three letters claim to beauthored by the apostle Paul (1Tim. 1:1; 2Tim. 1:1; Titus1:1). In seeking to determine the time of composition within achronology of Paul’s ministry, they must be dated toward theend of his life (in the case of 2Timothy, perhaps only shortlybefore his death) and after the close of the book of Acts, whichconcludes with the apostle’s arrival in Rome (Acts 28). In hisletter to the Romans, Paul anticipates a future mission to Spain(Rom. 15:23–29), but the Pastoral Epistles imply that hereturned to the east. Ephesus and Crete are the presumed locations ofhis coworkers Timothy and Titus (see 1Tim. 1:3; Titus 1:5). Onthis supposition, these letters arise from a further mission thereand a second (and final) imprisonment. The fact that Acts saysnothing about this is no evidence against the supposition.

Itis not necessary to view the mundane ecclesiastical arrangements ofthe Pastoral Epistles as inconsistent with a charismatic model ofleadership in other Pauline letters (note the address to “overseersand deacons” in Phil. 1:1). We know from Acts 14:23; 20:17–38that Paul appointed elders in the churches that he founded. Thetheological differences between the Pastoral Epistles and earlierPauline compositions should not be overemphasized. The stress laidupon “the faith” and “sound teaching” isexactly what might be expected if Paul anticipated his imminentremoval from the scene.

Theother alternative is the theory that after Paul’s death,members of a Pauline school (Timothy? Luke? Onesimus?) continued tosupply letters under his name, addressing contemporary church issuesin the guise of Paul, hoping to guarantee the legacy of the greatapostle. Some scholars go as far as to assert that an admirer of Paulcombined genuine Pauline fragments within a fictitious framework. Theearliest listing of Paul’s letters is that of Marcion (c. AD140), and he fails to mention the Pastoral Epistles. That omissionmay be explained in various ways. There is no evidence, however, thatanyone in the early church (orthodox or heterodox) who knew of theletters doubted their authenticity.

Ephesiansand Colossians.There is some textual uncertainty with regard to the words “inEphesus” in Eph. 1:1, making it possible that the letter wasoriginally a circular letter written by Paul to more than one church.The letter mentions no one by name except Tychicus (Eph. 6:21), whocarried the letter (perhaps to different churches in turn). This isenough to explain its more general orientation than some otherPauline letters, and any supposed theological “development”is not beyond the likely boundaries of Paul’s expansive mind(e.g., his teaching on the church). The use of the “in Christ”formula in Ephesians is not substantially different from how Paulhandles it elsewhere. The letter’s twofold structure ofdoctrinal exposition followed by practical instruction fits a commonPauline epistolary pattern. Indeed, F.F. Bruce refers to thisletter as “the quintessence of Paulinism.”

Ina number of ways Colossians and Ephesians share a common outlook. TheJewish Christian proto-gnostic false teaching combated in Colossiansis not referred to in other Pauline letters, but it may have been alocal Colossian variant. The letter is explicitly attributed to Paul,at both the beginning and the end (Col. 1:1; 4:18). Arguments aboutauthorship based on style and unusual vocabulary are notoriouslyslippery and inconclusive. The high Christology of cosmic dimensionsin Col. 1:15–20; 2:9–10, 15 is also present in undisputedPauline letters (cf. Phil. 2:9–11). The obvious relationship ofColossians to the little letter to Philemon (e.g., Col. 4:9, 17; cf.Philem. 2, 12) is one of the strongest arguments in favor of thePauline authorship of the former. Any theory of pseudepigraphy turnsCol. 4:7–17, with its many names, into fanciful and freeinvention with little real purpose. Also, we might wonder why a laterauthor chose to write under the name of Paul to a church that Paulhimself did not found.

SecondThessalonians.Some view the futuristic timetable provided in 2Thess. 2:1–12as moving beyond Paul, with the world’s end not yet in sight,for the writer teaches that certain things have to happen before thereturn of Christ, whereas in 1Thess. 4:13–5:11 Paul has anearer end in view. In both letters, however, the apostle is seekingto dampen the wrong kind of apocalyptic excitement. In2Thessalonians, it is clear that Paul knows a tradition ofJesus’ teaching about the future, such as also found in Mark13, so that there is nothing unreasonably “late” in theviews expressed.

Thesubstantial overlap in material between 1Thessalonians and2Thessalonians is not evidence of the labors of a laterdisciple and imitator of Paul. It is highly ironic that some scholarssuggest 2Thessalonians is not a genuine letter of Paul: theletter itself condemns a fake letter supposedly from him that claimsthat the day of the Lord is already past (2Thess. 2:2), and theoriginal letter included a final greeting written in Paul’s ownhand (2Thess. 3:17).

SecondPeter and Jude.As for 2Peter, it was not as well known in the early church as1Peter, and some (according to Origen) were hesitant to acceptit. Its author claims to be a witness to the transfiguration (2Pet.1:16–18). Such personal allusions need not be attributed to alater writer who was trying too hard to show that he was Simon Peter.The obvious connection of 2Pet. 1:14 to what is recorded inJohn 21 does not prove that the writer was dependent on that chapter.

Theremarkable parallels between 2Peter and Jude show that one isdependent upon the other, though scholars are not unanimous aboutwhich letter was prior. We cannot rule out that Peter would use andadapt the writings of a less prominent leader such as Jude. Judemakes use of apocryphal books, but neither in Jude nor in 2Peterdo arguments against the particular brand of false teaching require asecond-century (postapostolic) dating.

A literary device whereby an author writes under a name otherthan his or her own (a pseu-donym) or a book is deliberately assignedto a fictitious author (pseudepigraphy). In the case of ancientJewish practice, the name borrowed was usually that of some famousworthy of the past (e.g., Enoch, Ezra), with the aim of bolsteringthe credentials of the book to which the name was attached. This is acommon phenomenon in the Apocrypha (e.g., 2Esdras, Baruch,Epistle of Jeremiah). It is even more common in the large collectionof Second Temple texts now known as the Pseudepigrapha (e.g.,1Enoch, Odes of Solomon, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs).(See also Pseudepigrapha.)

Scholarscontinue to debate the morality of pseudonymity and whether it isproper for a pseudonymous book to be placed within the canon ofScripture. Some excuse pseudonymity as a mere stylistic device orexplain it as a culturally accepted convention. Others put a positivespin on the phenomenon, and so, for example, claim that in thePastoral Epistles literate disciples of Paul sought to apply hisideas to newly developing situations in the years following hisdeath. Some argue that such deception for a good cause is legitimatebecause it helped to gain a hearing for orthodox teaching. Otherstotally reject pseudepigraphy, viewing it as little better thandeception and forgery and thus unworthy of literature viewed asinspired by God. The last approach seems to be most consistent with ahigh view of Scripture.

Overthe last two hundred years a number of biblical books have beenidentified by some scholars as pseudonymous, notably Daniel in theOT, and in the NT six letters in the Pauline corpus—Ephesians,Colossians, 2Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles (1–2Timothy, Titus)—together with 2Peter and Jude.

OldTestament

Certainlyone mark of Jewish apocalyptic works is pseudonymity, and the book ofDaniel is often viewed by critical scholars as no exception to thisrule. It is difficult, however, to see how the name “Daniel”would have served to give the OT book named after him the desiredauthority, which is a major motivation for attaching a pseudonym.

Apartfrom the book itself, we essentially know nothing about this Daniel,whom it describes as living in Babylonia during the exile. In thebook of Ezekiel we have two references to a Daniel (Ezek. 14:14, 20).In this passage the prophet says that when the land sins against God,“even if these three men—Noah, Daniel and Job—werein it, they could save only themselves by their righteousness.”There is, in addition, the further reference in Ezek. 14:16 to “thesethree men,” obviously referring to the same three men. Ezekielspeaks of these three men as embodiments of righteousness, but thefact that this Daniel figure is placed between two ancients (Noah andJob) suggests that he too is a figure of antiquity, not acontemporary of Ezekiel.

Ezekiel28:3 taunts the king of Tyre: “Are you wiser than Daniel? Is nosecret hidden from you?” Here “Daniel” (the Hebrewtext at Ezek. 28:3 actually reads “Danel”) obviously is aproverbial figure of wisdom, and this implies that he may have beenwell known in Tyre and therefore could well have beenSyro-Phoenician. There is in fact a “Danel” figurementioned in Ugaritic literature (before 1200 BC). On the other hand,the Daniel of the book of Daniel is not a patriarch like Enoch, Noah,and Job, nor is he a famous figure like Ezra or the assistant to aprophet, as Baruch was to Jeremiah. Daniel is known only through thebook that bears his name. In other words, the usual motivationexplaining the use of a pseudonym does not apply to the canonicalbook of Daniel.

Also,the closing up and sealing of the book (Dan. 8:26; 12:4) is no meredevice necessitated by using as a pseudonym the name of a mansupposedly living in the time of Cyrus. Rather, the sealing signifiesthat much of the content of the later chapters of the book will beunderstood only when the predicted events begin to take place at afuture time, with the book placing Daniel (its presumed author) inthe sixth century BC.

NewTestament

ThePastoral Epistles.With regard to the Pastoral Epistles, all three letters claim to beauthored by the apostle Paul (1Tim. 1:1; 2Tim. 1:1; Titus1:1). In seeking to determine the time of composition within achronology of Paul’s ministry, they must be dated toward theend of his life (in the case of 2Timothy, perhaps only shortlybefore his death) and after the close of the book of Acts, whichconcludes with the apostle’s arrival in Rome (Acts 28). In hisletter to the Romans, Paul anticipates a future mission to Spain(Rom. 15:23–29), but the Pastoral Epistles imply that hereturned to the east. Ephesus and Crete are the presumed locations ofhis coworkers Timothy and Titus (see 1Tim. 1:3; Titus 1:5). Onthis supposition, these letters arise from a further mission thereand a second (and final) imprisonment. The fact that Acts saysnothing about this is no evidence against the supposition.

Itis not necessary to view the mundane ecclesiastical arrangements ofthe Pastoral Epistles as inconsistent with a charismatic model ofleadership in other Pauline letters (note the address to “overseersand deacons” in Phil. 1:1). We know from Acts 14:23; 20:17–38that Paul appointed elders in the churches that he founded. Thetheological differences between the Pastoral Epistles and earlierPauline compositions should not be overemphasized. The stress laidupon “the faith” and “sound teaching” isexactly what might be expected if Paul anticipated his imminentremoval from the scene.

Theother alternative is the theory that after Paul’s death,members of a Pauline school (Timothy? Luke? Onesimus?) continued tosupply letters under his name, addressing contemporary church issuesin the guise of Paul, hoping to guarantee the legacy of the greatapostle. Some scholars go as far as to assert that an admirer of Paulcombined genuine Pauline fragments within a fictitious framework. Theearliest listing of Paul’s letters is that of Marcion (c. AD140), and he fails to mention the Pastoral Epistles. That omissionmay be explained in various ways. There is no evidence, however, thatanyone in the early church (orthodox or heterodox) who knew of theletters doubted their authenticity.

Ephesiansand Colossians.There is some textual uncertainty with regard to the words “inEphesus” in Eph. 1:1, making it possible that the letter wasoriginally a circular letter written by Paul to more than one church.The letter mentions no one by name except Tychicus (Eph. 6:21), whocarried the letter (perhaps to different churches in turn). This isenough to explain its more general orientation than some otherPauline letters, and any supposed theological “development”is not beyond the likely boundaries of Paul’s expansive mind(e.g., his teaching on the church). The use of the “in Christ”formula in Ephesians is not substantially different from how Paulhandles it elsewhere. The letter’s twofold structure ofdoctrinal exposition followed by practical instruction fits a commonPauline epistolary pattern. Indeed, F.F. Bruce refers to thisletter as “the quintessence of Paulinism.”

Ina number of ways Colossians and Ephesians share a common outlook. TheJewish Christian proto-gnostic false teaching combated in Colossiansis not referred to in other Pauline letters, but it may have been alocal Colossian variant. The letter is explicitly attributed to Paul,at both the beginning and the end (Col. 1:1; 4:18). Arguments aboutauthorship based on style and unusual vocabulary are notoriouslyslippery and inconclusive. The high Christology of cosmic dimensionsin Col. 1:15–20; 2:9–10, 15 is also present in undisputedPauline letters (cf. Phil. 2:9–11). The obvious relationship ofColossians to the little letter to Philemon (e.g., Col. 4:9, 17; cf.Philem. 2, 12) is one of the strongest arguments in favor of thePauline authorship of the former. Any theory of pseudepigraphy turnsCol. 4:7–17, with its many names, into fanciful and freeinvention with little real purpose. Also, we might wonder why a laterauthor chose to write under the name of Paul to a church that Paulhimself did not found.

SecondThessalonians.Some view the futuristic timetable provided in 2Thess. 2:1–12as moving beyond Paul, with the world’s end not yet in sight,for the writer teaches that certain things have to happen before thereturn of Christ, whereas in 1Thess. 4:13–5:11 Paul has anearer end in view. In both letters, however, the apostle is seekingto dampen the wrong kind of apocalyptic excitement. In2Thessalonians, it is clear that Paul knows a tradition ofJesus’ teaching about the future, such as also found in Mark13, so that there is nothing unreasonably “late” in theviews expressed.

Thesubstantial overlap in material between 1Thessalonians and2Thessalonians is not evidence of the labors of a laterdisciple and imitator of Paul. It is highly ironic that some scholarssuggest 2Thessalonians is not a genuine letter of Paul: theletter itself condemns a fake letter supposedly from him that claimsthat the day of the Lord is already past (2Thess. 2:2), and theoriginal letter included a final greeting written in Paul’s ownhand (2Thess. 3:17).

SecondPeter and Jude.As for 2Peter, it was not as well known in the early church as1Peter, and some (according to Origen) were hesitant to acceptit. Its author claims to be a witness to the transfiguration (2Pet.1:16–18). Such personal allusions need not be attributed to alater writer who was trying too hard to show that he was Simon Peter.The obvious connection of 2Pet. 1:14 to what is recorded inJohn 21 does not prove that the writer was dependent on that chapter.

Theremarkable parallels between 2Peter and Jude show that one isdependent upon the other, though scholars are not unanimous aboutwhich letter was prior. We cannot rule out that Peter would use andadapt the writings of a less prominent leader such as Jude. Judemakes use of apocryphal books, but neither in Jude nor in 2Peterdo arguments against the particular brand of false teaching require asecond-century (postapostolic) dating.

Temples have always been the domain and house of the godsthroughout the ancient Near East. As the abode of the God of Israel,the Jerusalem temple served the same purpose. The temple played animportant role in the social, religious, and political life ofancient Israel. No archaeological remains of the actual templebuilding exist today; nevertheless, the temple has dominated biblicalscholarship. The Jerusalem temple was originally built by Solomon in953 BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 586BC. After the exile, the temple was rebuilt and then rededicated byZerubbabel in 515 BC (Ezra). Herod the Great significantly expandedand changed the temple, but it was eventually destroyed by the Romansunder the direction of Titus in AD70.

Thebiblical text refers to the temple in several ways: temple, house ofGod/Yahweh, and sanctuary/shrine. These terms all refer to thedwelling or house of God and an area of sacredness. The sources forinformation on the temple are biblical texts, Josephus, and theMishnah (tractate Middot). The most detailed accounts of theconstruction of the Solomonic temple are found in 1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 2–4. In addition to these major sections, thereare several references to building activities and repairs to thetemple throughout the OT. Another major text is Ezek. 40, but it isdebated whether this represents the actual temple or an ideal temple.There are several references in the NT that directly or indirectlyrefer to functions and specific components of the Temple Mountcomplex.

ArchaeologicalInvestigation

Thelocation of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem has been undisputed.Current scholarly opinion locates the temple on the spot of thecurrent Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock. Today the largerenclosed area is referred to as the harem esh-sharif (the noblesanctuary). Explorers in the nineteenth century did not attemptarchaeological research of the temple itself, although variousexplorations focused on recording visible features and conductingsoundings along the sides of the Temple Mount. Even after theunification of Jerusalem in 1967, with three major excavations in thecity, no archaeological investigation of the temple was conducted.Due to the political and religious variables associated with theMuslim holy sites, there are no foreseeable archaeologicalinvestigations. A recent renovation of the Mosque of Omar, located onthe southern end of the Temple Mount, removed truckloads of earth.Unfortunately, there was no archaeological supervision of the projectand no archaeological excavations of the site were conducted.

Inspite of the limited archaeological excavations, several popularaccounts of alternate locations of the temple have been proposed.Most of these place the temple somewhere other than the Dome of theRock, but none of these proposals has garnered scholarly support torival the current location.

FirstTemple: Temple of Solomon

Throughoutthe ancient Near East, temples served as monumental edifices thatprovided divine legitimacy for the king or dynasty. While templesshould be considered part of the religious sphere of society, theirconstruction, maintenance, and associated activities are interlinkedwith the political sphere. The construction of the temple inJerusalem is also linked to state formation by the Israelites. TheSolomonic temple ushered in a new period of religious activity amongthe ancient Israelites. Previously, Israel had worshiped at variousshrines and sanctuaries, and its central religious practice wasassociated with the tabernacle. With the establishment of themonarchy, dynastic kingship and centralized authority were created.Although the biblical text credits Solomon as the Israelite king whobuilt the temple, the project was initiated under David. David unitedthe Israelite tribes, captured Jerusalem and made it the capital ofthe kingdom, and built a royal palace. He made Jerusalem thepolitical capital but also the religious center when he brought theholy ark, the visible symbol of Yahweh’s presence, to Jerusalem(2Sam. 5–6). David intended to build Yahweh a permanentdwelling (2Sam. 7:2).

Location.Thebiblical text preserves multiple traditions and accounts of thelocation and acquisition of land for the temple. In the ancient worldthe city temple was commonly located on the acropolis (highest point)of the city. The temple is located on the highest point of a ridgewhere the OT city of Jerusalem is located (Jebusite city, later theCity of David). There are two accounts of the purchase of the land:the threshing floors of Araunah (2Sam. 24:18–25) and ofOrnan (1Chron. 21:15–30; 2Chron. 3:1 [here the NIVsupplies “Araunah,” but see, e.g., the NET, NASB, ESV]).It is possible that Araunah and Ornan were kin, but most likely theyare the same person, with Samuel and Chronicles using variant names.However, the two accounts disagree further on the amount paid for theland: fifty silver shekels (2Sam. 24:24) and six hundredshekels of gold (1Chron. 21:25). One theory explains thisdiscrepancy as arising from two separate transactions. First, Davidpurchased the threshing floor to build an altar to Yahweh, and helater purchased the whole mountain to build a temple. Later traditionassociates the hill where David built an altar with the locationwhere earlier Abraham built an altar to sacrifice Isaac (MountMoriah).

Constructionand dimensions.Solomon started to build during the fourth year of his reign(2Chron. 3:1), and construction lasted for seven years. Theplan of the temple was revealed to Solomon during a night in thesanctuary at Gibeon (2Chron. 1:7–13). The king obtainedbuilding materials, specifically cedar from Lebanon (2Chron.2:3–10), and construction and design expertise from Phoenicianartisans (1Kings 7:13–14, 45). The Solomonic templeconsisted of a tripartite plan similar to other temples inSyro-Palestine during this period. There are two accounts for theconstruction and dedication of the first temple (1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 3–7). Both accounts offer similar descriptionsbut there are some differences in measurements. Most scholars accountfor these differences by viewing the dimensions in the book ofChronicles as reflecting the temple measurements after Hezekiah’srepair and rebuilding projects.

Thebasic plan was a rectangle, 70 cubits long (120ft. 7in.)and 20 cubits wide (34ft. 5in.) on a straight axis facingeast; the height was 30 cubits (51ft. 7in.). Thesemeasurements refer to the inside dimensions (1cubit=20.67 in.). The three distinct architectural units formed threedistinct rooms where various functions were performed and alsoreflected levels of holiness. The three units were the ’ulam(“porch” or “vestibule”), the hekal (“cella”or “nave”), and the debir (the innermost sanctuary, themost holy place). In the biblical accounts the whole building iscalled the “house [bayit] of the Lord,” and the word“temple” is used for the hekal. There was a three-storystructure built around the sides and back of the temple (see below).

Theporch was 10 cubits (17ft. 2in.) by 20 cubits (34ft.5in.). The account in Kings does not provide its height; theaccount in Chronicles gives the height as 120 cubits. In itsdescription and measurements in the biblical text, the porch isconsidered separate from the temple (bayit, house). The porchcontained two pillars of bronze: yakin (“he will establish”)on the right side and bo’az (“in strength”) on theleft (see Boaz; Jakin). The pillars were bronze, 18 cubits (35 cubitsin Chronicles) in height, with elaborate double capitals. The bottomcapital was 5 cubits, round in shape, and surrounded by nets withpomegranates. Above this was another capital, 4 cubits high, shapedlike a lily.

Thehekal was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide and was the only partwith windows (1Kings 6:4). The debir was a cube, 20 cubits perside. The debir is also called the “holy of holies.” Thedifference in height (10 cubits shorter than the hekal  )is due to the rise in the bedrock. This measurement is confirmedtoday in the interior of the Dome of the Rock.

Thewalls of the house (hekal and debir) were built of whole stonesdressed in the quarry, as “no hammer, chisel or any other irontool was heard at the temple site while it was being built”(1Kings 6:7). The roof was made of cedar wood (1Kings6:10), with crossbeams and intersecting boards. The stone walls werecovered from ground to ceiling with boards of cedar wood, and thefloor was made of cypress wood, covered with gold (1Kings6:30). The wood had carved engravings of cherubim, palm trees, andopen flowers. The hekal and the debir were separated by a partitionmade of olive wood.

Thethree-story structure surrounding the temple was constructed of cedarwood. Each story was 5 cubits. The width of the first floor was 5cubits, the middle 6 cubits, and the top 7 cubits. This structure wasentered from the right side of the temple, and the floors wereconnected by openings with ladders. This structure formed chambersand storage for the activities of the priests.

Infront of the temple was a courtyard surrounded by a wall. Inside thecourtyard was a great bronze basin (known as “the Sea”).This basin rested on the backs of twelve bronze oxen. Ten smallerbasins in groups of five were set on elaborate wheeled stands. Alarge altar also was located in this courtyard.

Inthe holy of holies stood two large cherubim of olive wood coveredwith gold. They were 10 cubits in height, with a wingspan of 10cubits. These cherubim stood over the ark of the covenant. In thehekal were the golden altar, the golden table, and ten lampstands.

History.FromSolomon to Zedekiah, the temple was used for political and religiouspower shifts. Kings of Israel raided the temple treasury to pay offinvaders, closed the temple, or placed idols in the temple in periodsof apostasy. During periods of reform they repaired and rebuilt thetemple and its furnishings.

UnderRehoboam’s reign, Shishak king of Egypt ransacked the templeand removed all its treasures (1Kings 14:25–28; 2Chron.12:9). Asa and his father, Abijah, added to the treasure of thetemple with silver, gold, and other vessels (2Chron. 15:18) butused these to pay Ben-Hadad of Syria to help him fight Baasha king ofIsrael (16:2–3). Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (2Chron. 17)ruled during a time of prosperity and reform. It was under his rulethat the court in front of the temple probably was enlarged (20:5).The sons of Athaliah broke into the temple and worshiped Baal. Duringthe reign of Amaziah the temple was plundered by Jehoash king ofIsrael (2Chron. 25). Uzziah ruled for a long period ofprosperity (787–736 BC) but attempted to burn incense on thealtar in the hekal, a ritual kept solely for the priests. A laterking, Jotham, built the Upper Gate of the house of Yahweh (2Kings15:35; 2Chron. 27:3). Jotham’s son Ahaz took the silverand gold from the temple and sent it as a present to the king ofAssyria. He moved and changed various vessels of the temple and shutit* doors (2Chron. 28:24).

Hezekiahson of Ahaz ruled during a time of prosperity and revival. Hereopened the temple doors (2Chron. 29), cleaned out the temple,and created a 500-cubit-square mount around the temple. Hezekiahconducted many building projects in Jerusalem and reforms throughoutthe land. He also “stripped off the gold with which he hadcovered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the Lord” topay a ransom to Sennacherib king of Assyria (2Kings 18:16). Dueto his building activities, most scholars attribute major changes tothe temple to Hezekiah’s reign. The differences in the templedescriptions in Kings and Chronicles probably reflect two differentperiods of history concerning the temple (e.g., Kings represents thetemple during the period of Solomon, while Chronicles represents thechanges to the temple by Hezekiah). Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son,undid the work of his father by building altars in the temple.

Thelast resurgence of the temple in the life of the people of Israel wasunder Josiah. He instigated a reform throughout the land and acleansing of the temple. Hilkiah the high priest found a copy of the“Book of the Law” (2Kings 22:8). After a reading ofthe law in the public square, a collection was taken from the peopleto be given to workers for temple repair. The Babylonians took someof the temple treasure (2Chron. 36:7) under the rule ofJehoiakim. The last two kings of Judah, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, alsolost temple treasure to Babylon, and eventually the temple wasdestroyed during the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2Chron.36).

SecondTemple: Zerubbabel and the Temple of Herod the Great

Zerubbabel’stemple.Solomon’s temple was rebuilt by the Jews who returned fromexile under the decree of the Persian king Darius (Ezra 6:1–5).The temple was built under the direction of the governor Zerubbabelwith the support of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:13–18)and was dedicated in 515 BC. This would have been a poorer temple dueto the poverty of the inhabitants of Judah. During the Hasmoneanperiod (152–37 BC) a platform and a fortress were constructed.Not much is known about the temple during this period. It would begreatly eclipsed by the work of Herod the Great.

Templeof Herod the Great.Herod invested heavily in building projects throughout his kingdom.He was keen on bringing Hellenistic culture to the Jews but also onupholding traditional Jewish religious practices, especially when itcame to the temple. Just as the first temple mimicked the religiousarchitecture of the ancient Near East, the second temple reflectedthe massive sacred architecture of the classical world. John 2:20indicates that thus far it had taken forty-six years (beyond Herod’slife) to build. Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple,but he was able to make additions to the outside, alter its outerfurnishings, and expand the compound and platform to match thegrandeur of Greco-Roman temples. Today scholars refer to all thesebuildings and the temple as the Temple Mount complex.

Herodexpanded the space of the Temple Mount by building a “box”around the mountain. This was a massive wall with varying height dueto the topography. This wall is still visible today, especially thecurrent religious site of the Western Wall. This construction allowedfor a level platform with various buildings and plazas on the top.The leveling was done by filling in the gaps and buildingsubterranean arches in low areas. One of these areas is located onthe southeast corner (the underground arched supports are erroneouslycalled “Solomon’s Stables” today). The whole areawas surrounded by a colonnaded portico (Solomon’s Colonnade[John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12]). On the northwest corner was theAntonia Fortress (Acts 21:35), and the southern end of the complexcontained the Royal Stoa, a basilica-style building (four rows offorty columns) that housed the Sanhedrin and had other religious andpolitical functions (Luke 22:66).

Thiscomplex became the religious and political center of the city ofJerusalem, and Herod built many auxiliary components. Severalentrances and bridges from the Upper City were built. The publicentered the complex from the south. A southern complex consisting ofmonumental stairs (210 feet wide) and entrance and exit gates (Doubleand Triple Gates) took pedestrians from the outside up throughunderground tunnels to the top of the temple compound. These stairsbecame an area for public forums. In addition, several shops (Mark11:15–17) were built around the complex, as well as a largebathhouse for ritual cleansing. In order to facilitate the manysacrifices, Herod built a complex hydrologic system that broughtwater into the city. This was accomplished by various aqueducts andstorage pools. The Temple Mount had many cisterns and a new pool onthe northeast end of the Temple Mount complex, the Pool of Israel.Although Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple itself,he was able to enlarge the facade, added storage chambers andauxiliary buildings, build a second story above the temple, andconstruct several courtyards and various buildings associated withthem. In keeping with the earlier tripartite level of holiness, theseadditional temple buildings and courtyards retained the same lineardegree of holiness and exclusion.

Josephuscalled Herod’s temple “a structure more noteworthy thanany under the sun” (Ant. 15.412). Herod built a new monumentalfacade in front of the existing temple and added a second story.Herod’s temple measured 100 cubits (172 ft.) in all threedimensions. It stood on top of a foundation that gave it addedheight. It had two stories, each one 45 cubits (77.5 ft.) in height.On the roof was a parapet, 3cubits in height, which containedgolden spikes, 1 cubit in height, to prevent birds from perching onthe roof’s edge. The temple was decorated with gold overlay.The opening between the ’ulam (“porch”) and thesanctuary was 20 cubits high and 10 cubits wide (34 ft. by 17 ft.).There were two sets of double folding doors. The sanctuary containedthe golden menorah, the table of the bread of the Presence, and thealtar of incense. Between the sanctuary and the holy of holies was alarge tapestry (veil) (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). The holyof holies had gold plating on its walls. Around the temple werethirty-eight cells built in three stories (m.Mid. 4:3–4).All of the cells were interconnected by openings between adjoiningcells and by one in the ceiling to reach the cell above. To thenorth, between the outer wall of the temple and the cells, was aninner stairway with access to the top of the temple and the upperchamber (second story of the temple). The upper chamber allowedpriests to service the holy of holies. They would be suspended inbaskets, covered on three sides, through openings in the floor toclean the gold overlay in the holy of holies.

Thetemple courtyard was surrounded by various gates and buildings. Thesewere specific entrances and buildings that the priests used for thevarious functions of the sacrifices and offerings (Mark 13:1–2).These included the Kindling Gate, Wood Chamber, Gate of theFirstlings, Golah Chamber, Water Gate, Chamber of the Hearth, Gate ofJeconiah, Rinsing Chamber, Gate of the Offering-Women, Salt-ParvaChamber, and Gate of the Flame-Singers. In front of the temple weretwo narrow courts: the court of the priests to the west and the courtof the Israelites (men) to the east. Inside the temple court was thealtar of burnt offering. During the Second Temple period it was astationary, square-shaped altar constructed of unhewn stones.According to the Mishnah (m.Mid. 3:1), this altar was 32 cubitssquare at the base and about 10 cubits in height. A ramp 32 cubitslong, also built of unhewn stones, led the priests up to the altarfrom the south. A laver, the great bronze basin known as “theSea,” stood west of the altar between the altar and the templeporch (’ulam) for the washing of hands and feet. North of thealtar was the place of slaughtering.

Thecourt of the women, 135 cubits square, was in front of the temple tothe east. This court had four smaller courts, one at each corner.Women could enter the temple only as far as this court. It wassurrounded by a colonnade. Inside these porches (porticoes) werethirteen collection boxes for money. This is where Jesus saw the poorwidow donating two copper coins (Luke 21:1–3). The court hadfour large lampstands nearly half the height of the temple. TheMishnah states that each of the corner chambers was 40 cubits squareand roofless. The central area was exposed to the sky, with a porticoaround each courtyard—typical of Mediterranean buildings. Thechamber to the immediate right of the court’s entrance(northeast) was the chamber of the woodshed, where priests examinedlogs for impurities (e.g., parasites). To the left (southeast) wasthe chamber of the Nazirites. To the northwest was the chamber of thelepers. A leper who had been healed brought an offering and thenbathed in this chamber before coming to the priests for theperformance of rituals. In the southwest corner was the chamber ofthe house of oil. Between the court of the women and the temple courtwas the Nicanor Gate. Fifteen semicircular steps led up to this gate.It was on these steps that the Levites sang the fifteen Psalms ofAscent (Pss. 120–134).

Surroundingthe temple and the court of the women was a balustrade or railingthat served as a boundary beyond which no Gentile could enter.Outside this boundary was the court of the Gentiles (see John12:20–22; Acts 21:27–29). Archaeologists have found aninscription that forbids Gentiles, upon pain of death, to enter anyfarther. Herod’s temple was destroyed in AD 70. The TempleMount continued to be used and considered sacred, as Roman temples,Crusader churches, and Muslim shrines marked the sacredness of thelocation.

Roleof the Temple

Thetemple was the dwelling place of Yahweh. It was the domain of thereligious leaders, priests, and Levites. It also represented therelationship/covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Variouskings used the temple for their political maneuvering and attempts toshift the religious worship of the nation. The temple was the visiblepresence of God and embodied the political and religious aspirationsof the people. The temple sat on top of a sacred mountain.

Duringturbulent political times the temple was central to God’sprotection and judgment. From the Babylonian and Roman periods, twotexts spoke of a future temple. Ezekiel’s vision saw afuturistic temple measuring 500 cubits square surrounded by a massivecourt measuring 3,000 cubits square (Ezek. 40:1–47:12). Amongthe DSS, the Temple Scroll also talks about a rebuilt temple. Todaymany Christians and Jews look to a future rebuilding of the temple.