1 As he was leaving the temple, one of his disciples said to him, "Look, Teacher! What massive stones! What magnificent buildings!"
2 "Do you see all these great buildings?" replied Jesus. "Not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down."
3 As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives opposite the temple, Peter, James, John and Andrew asked him privately, 4 "Tell us, when will these things happen? And what will be the sign that they are all about to be fulfilled?"
5 Jesus said to them: "Watch out that no one deceives you. 6 Many will come in my name, claiming, 'I am he,' and will deceive many. 7 When you hear of wars and rumors of wars, do not be alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come. 8 Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and famines. These are the beginning of birth pains.
9 "You must be on your guard. You will be handed over to the local councils and flogged in the synagogues. On account of me you will stand before governors and kings as witnesses to them. 10 And the gospel must first be preached to all nations. 11 Whenever you are arrested and brought to trial, do not worry beforehand about what to say. Just say whatever is given you at the time, for it is not you speaking, but the Holy Spirit.
12 "Brother will betray brother to death, and a father his child. Children will rebel against their parents and have them put to death. 13 All men will hate you because of me, but he who stands firm to the end will be saved.
14 "When you see 'the abomination that causes desolation' standing where it does not belong--let the reader understand--then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. 15 Let no one on the roof of his house go down or enter the house to take anything out. 16 Let no one in the field go back to get his cloak. 17 How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant women and nursing mothers! 18 Pray that this will not take place in winter, 19 because those will be days of distress unequaled from the beginning, when God created the world, until now--and never to be equaled again. 20 If the Lord had not cut short those days, no one would survive. But for the sake of the elect, whom he has chosen, he has shortened them. 21 At that time if anyone says to you, 'Look, here is the Christ !' or, 'Look, there he is!' do not believe it. 22 For false Christs and false prophets will appear and perform signs and miracles to deceive the elect--if that were possible. 23 So be on your guard; I have told you everything ahead of time.
24 "But in those days, following that distress, " 'the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; 25 the stars will fall from the sky, and the heavenly bodies will be shaken.'
26 "At that time men will see the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory. 27 And he will send his angels and gather his elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of the heavens.
28 "Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. 29 Even so, when you see these things happening, you know that it is near, right at the door. 30 I tell you the truth, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. 31 Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.
Sim Lev!
Mark 13:1-31, Mark 13:32-37, Matthew 24:1-35, Matthew 24:36-51
Sermon
by Lori Wagner
“Let us hold unswervingly to the hope we profess, for he who promised is faithful.” (Hebrews 10:23)
“Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength.” (Deuteronomy 6:5)
Prop: ruby slippers (you may use these as an example of an “anchoring” metaphor/sign) OR bud of a fig tree // recommended: Holy Communion elements
One of the most mesmerizing tales of the 20th century was The Wizard of Oz starring a young Judy Garland. It was first and foremost a foray into the world of dreams. But what made this musical so memorable was its awe-inspiring demonstration of “dazzling new” technicolor pictures.
The film starts in a black and white realism, that seems to mirror Dorothy’s black and white understanding of life on her family’s Kansas farm. When a tornado sweeps through the rural countryside, Dorothy bumps her head and a story arises from the twilight of her unconscious mind that may be imaginary, but is peppered with colorful clues and characters from her real Kansas life.
If you pay attention to those hints and clues and metaphors, you discover that Dorothy’s dream world is rooted in her own true identity: her love of friends and family, her sense of home. When she awakens, those clues will be the triggers that remind and refresh her soul of the love that she’s never lost but which is right there for her to embrace. Understanding the relationships that make her life valuable creates for her an exquisitely beautiful new view of her home and family, free of simplistic dichotomies and shadowy misunderstandings.
The story? Your “dream come true” may already be in your own backyard.
[Hold up the ruby slippers.]
For Dorothy, the clue to her identity lies in her ruby slippers --a metaphor with the power to transport her back to where her heart truly belongs. But the true power isn’t in the shoes. The true power is the love graven in her heart, and her heart’s desire to find the true meaning of home.
Jesus wants his disciples to understand something very similar. Despite the darkness coming, despite the trials and tribulations he knows they will face on account of him, despite all of the turmoil he knows is in store, the chaos and confusion, the false prophets, and distractions, and misunderstandings, and misleading ideas about him and about God, Jesus wants his disciples to stay alert to the “signs” of God in their midst, the “metaphors” that point to truth, and to Jesus’ presence among them even in the midst of sorrow and suffering. Jesus wants us to stay focused on who we are –followers of Jesus— even when doubt may tempt to consume us.
“Pay attention!” he says. “Stay focused!” “Heed the signs!” “Don’t get distracted!” “Stay true to Me.” “Stay rooted in who you know God to be!”
“Don’t let your faith falter!”
The word in Greek is blepete. But its equivalent in Hebrew is “sim lev!” In Hebrew, it means, “pay attention.” But its etymology means, “put your heart into it!”
“Sim lev!” “Put your heart …into it!”
Those of you in a relationship know that the best gift you can give someone is your attention, your presence of mind and heart. Relationships thrive on “engagement.”
It’s a cool word….right? And I’m sure some of you are thinking about “engagement” as we approach Valentine’s Day this year. Engagement means that you are “engaged” in that relationship intimately. The opposite is detachment. When you are in love with someone, you engage with them in what I like to call “deep knowing.”
It’s no different in our relationship with Jesus. When we “engage” our hearts and minds with Jesus, we are entering into a kind of relationship in which we experience “deep knowing.” Deep knowing is that sense of really knowing someone –how they feel about things, what’s meaningful to him or her, his or her values and dreams, the depths of his or her soul. Deep knowing means taking the time to “put our hearts” into getting to know someone else in a very intimate way, so that no matter what challenges come your way, you “know” that person well enough to respect him or her, and to know his or her love for you is dedicated and true, lasting and loyal. Deep knowing is the assurance of presence, and the ability to hold that person in your heart, even when not physically present.
Those who have had a loved one pass away know exactly what I mean. That person lives on in your heart in ways that are inexplicable, and undeniable. Love….never dies.
“Deep knowing.”
Just as we get to “know” our partners and our spouses intimately and well, we are able to recognize Jesus in ways that we couldn’t before, and to know He is there, even when hard times set in, if only we “put our hearts” into knowing Him.
“Paying attention” to the signs of Jesus in our midst is a decision to keep our hearts engaged in that relationship with Jesus, even when doubt creeps in, even when lies about him are told, even in a culture that doesn’t believe, even when our faith is assaulted and challenged.
Worship…. is “paying attention” to God in the midst of distractions. Prayer…. is “paying attention” to God in the midst of a noisy culture. Getting to know Jesus –through scriptures, through personal encounter, through meditation, through fellowship with each other, through Holy Communion, through all of the ways that keep you “engaged” with Jesus, that keep your heart focused on him --all of this leads to a faith that cannot be broken, and an assurance that he is always near.
The shema, the prayer Jesus himself prayed and quoted, commands us to love God with all of our hearts, minds, and strength. We are to “put our hearts” into loving God and getting to know Jesus in all of the ways we can. We are to “hold fast” to those things we know are true about him and about His love for us. We are to “take heed” not to be distracted by those who would lead us astray.
Hold sway, Jesus tells us. Don’t lose faith. Look sharp. See Jesus as the Savior he is. The clues are all around you in beautiful reminders of His love and care. You just need to “pay attention.”
Jesus tried his best to remind his disciples that they were not alone, would not be alone in the times to come. But by following him, they were guaranteed a different kind of life, an assured future, in which they would be loved and cared for.
“I will give you a new heart and put a new spirit in you.” said God through the prophet Ezekiel. “I am with you to the end of the age,” Jesus promised.
Dorothy, in the Wizard of Oz, had a dream. She dreamt that good prevails over evil, that her friends would always be friends, that she could find her way home, despite all the forces of evil. She dreamt that hope is born in the heart, and that what is most important harbors in the heart.
She was right.
Sometimes living in the world can seem like a bad dream. Sometimes more a nightmare than a nightingale. Reality is not reality TV. Life is full of pain and tragedy and unfairness. But within your life, within the lives of your friends and your family, your neighbors and even your foes, lie clues that there is something much bigger than all of this pain and tragedy. Your heart can resonate with joy, and hope, and laughter, and love when Jesus name is spoken, and the signs of his Spirit poke through like a rainbow through the clouds.
Jesus is Lord.
Dorothy may have had ruby slippers to connect her to her heart’s home, although it took her a good deal of time to remember what they meant to her. When we get engaged, we offer a ring, a circular symbol that always draws us back to that first-love in which we gave our hearts.
Jesus too gives us a metaphor of our engagement –his body and his blood. Through this “communion” with Him, we are reminded, pulled back into that “deep knowing” with Him, conscious of His presence in our lives, recommitted to our loyalty and love. Jesus is our heart’s focus. We place our hearts in His hands, and put our hearts in Him.
And there are so many other reminders too.
You can see Jesus in the cry of a baby, in the first buds of a spring fig tree, in the joy of relationships, in the solitude of silence. You can see him in the faces of loved ones, in the kindness of a neighbor, in the generosity of a stranger, and even in the dawn of yet another day.
When your heart is rooted in Jesus, you will always find your way home, your truth, your steady rock, your love, your true identity, …your way to God.
Pay attention. Keep your heart rooted in Jesus. Look sharp. Hold sway. Stay the course. Keep your heart focused on Him.
“Sim lev!”
In Him you will find your hope. In Him you will find your assurance. In Him you will discover your salvation.
*The photo for this sermon comes from Technology of the Heart
Based on the Story Lectionary
Major Text
Jesus Tells His Disciples to Heed the Signs of the End of the Age (Mark 13; Matthew 24)
Minor Text
The Story of Noah (Genesis 5-7)
Abraham Attempts to Sacrifice His Son Isaac But Due to God’s Sign Declines (Genesis 22)
Hold Fast to the Lord and You Will Receive God’s Abundance (Deuteronomy 30)
The Ebenezer Stone Represents Holding Fast to God and God’s Help to Israel (1 Samuel 7)
Psalm 26: Examine My Heart and Mind for I Have Been Faithful
Psalm 73: I Will Stay Steadfast to the Lord Despite Those Around Me Who Seem to Flourish
Psalm 119: I Seek You with All My Heart…Do Not Let Me Stray from You
Daniel is Saved from Lions Due to His Steadfast Faith in God (Daniel 6)
The Story of Job
All Those Who Hold Fast to the Lord Will Be Blessed (Isaiah 56:1-8)
The Tribes Hold Fast to the Lord (Joshua 22)
Paul’s Advice to the Thessalonians to Hold Fast to God and Be Loving to All (I Thessalonians 5)
The Victory of the Lamb for Those Who Have Held Fast to Jesus (Revelation 12)
Jesus Tells His Disciples to Heed the Signs of the End of the Age as Told by Mark
As Jesus was leaving the temple, one of his disciples said to him, “Look, Teacher! What massive stones! What magnificent buildings!”
“Do you see all these great buildings?” replied Jesus. “Not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down.”
As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives opposite the temple, Peter, James, John and Andrew asked him privately, “Tell us, when will these things happen? And what will be the sign that they are all about to be fulfilled?”
Jesus said to them: “Watch out that no one deceives you. Many will come in my name, claiming, ‘I am he,’ and will deceive many. When you hear of wars and rumors of wars, do not be alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come. Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and famines. These are the beginning of birth pains.
“You must be on your guard. You will be handed over to the local councils and flogged in the synagogues.
On account of me you will stand before governors and kings as witnesses to them. And the gospel must first be preached to all nations.
Whenever you are arrested and brought to trial, do not worry beforehand about what to say. Just say whatever is given you at the time, for it is not you speaking, but the Holy Spirit.
“Brother will betray brother to death, and a father his child. Children will rebel against their parents and have them put to death. Everyone will hate you because of me, but the one who stands firm to the end will be saved.
“When you see ‘the abomination that causes desolation’ standing where it does not belong—let the reader understand—then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. Let no one on the housetop go down or enter the house to take anything out. Let no one in the field go back to get their cloak. How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant women and nursing mothers! Pray that this will not take place in winter, because those will be days of distress unequaled from the beginning, when God created the world, until now—and never to be equaled again.
“If the Lord had not cut short those days, no one would survive. But for the sake of the elect, whom he has chosen, he has shortened them.
At that time if anyone says to you, ‘Look, here is the Messiah!’ or, ‘Look, there he is!’ do not believe it. For false messiahs and false prophets will appear and perform signs and wonders to deceive, if possible, even the elect. So be on your guard; I have told you everything ahead of time.
“But in those days, following that distress, “‘the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; the stars will fall from the sky, and the heavenly bodies will be shaken.’ “At that time, people will see the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory. And he will send his angels and gather his elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of the heavens.
“Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. Even so, when you see these things happening, you know that it is near, right at the door. Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened.
Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.
“But about that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father.
Be on guard! Be alert! You do not know when that time will come. It’s like a man going away: He leaves his house and puts his servants in charge, each with their assigned task, and tells the one at the door to keep watch. “Therefore, keep watch because you do not know when the owner of the house will come back—whether in the evening, or at midnight, or when the rooster crows, or at dawn. If he comes suddenly, do not let him find you sleeping. What I say to you, I say to everyone: ‘Watch!’”
Jesus Tells His Disciples to Heed the Signs of the End of the Age According to Matthew
Jesus left the temple and was walking away when his disciples came up to him to call his attention to its buildings.
“Do you see all these things?” he asked. “Truly I tell you, not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down.”
As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to him privately. “Tell us,” they said, “when will this happen, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age?”
Jesus answered: “Watch out that no one deceives you. For many will come in my name, claiming, ‘I am the Messiah,’ and will deceive many.
You will hear of wars and rumors of wars, but see to it that you are not alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come. Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. All these are the beginning of birth pains.
“Then you will be handed over to be persecuted and put to death, and you will be hated by all nations because of me. At that time many will turn away from the faith and will betray and hate each other, and many false prophets will appear and deceive many people.
Because of the increase of wickedness, the love of most will grow cold, but the one who stands firm to the end will be saved. And this gospel of the kingdom will be preached in the whole world as a testimony to all nations, and then the end will come.
“So when you see standing in the holy place ‘the abomination that causes desolation,’ spoken of through the prophet Daniel—let the reader understand— then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. Let no one on the housetop go down to take anything out of the house. Let no one in the field go back to get their cloak.
How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant women and nursing mothers! Pray that your flight will not take place in winter or on the Sabbath. For then there will be great distress, unequaled from the beginning of the world until now—and never to be equaled again.
“If those days had not been cut short, no one would survive, but for the sake of the elect those days will be shortened.
At that time if anyone says to you, ‘Look, here is the Messiah!’ or, ‘There he is!’ do not believe it. For false messiahs and false prophets will appear and perform great signs and wonders to deceive, if possible, even the elect.
See, I have told you ahead of time. “So if anyone tells you, ‘There he is, out in the wilderness,’ do not go out; or, ‘Here he is, in the inner rooms,’ do not believe it.
For as lightning that comes from the east is visible even in the west, so will be the coming of the Son of Man. Wherever there is a carcass, there the vultures will gather.
“Immediately after the distress of those days, “‘the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; the stars will fall from the sky, and the heavenly bodies will be shaken.’ “Then will appear the sign of the Son of Man in heaven. And then all the peoples of the earth will mourn when they see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven, with power and great glory. And he will send his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of the heavens to the other.
“Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. Even so, when you see all these things, you know that it is near, right at the door. Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened.
Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.
“But about that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father.
As it was in the days of Noah, so it will be at the coming of the Son of Man. For in the days before the flood, people were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, up to the day Noah entered the ark; and they knew nothing about what would happen until the flood came and took them all away. That is how it will be at the coming of the Son of Man.
Two men will be in the field; one will be taken and the other left. Two women will be grinding with a hand mill; one will be taken and the other left. “Therefore, keep watch, because you do not know on what day your Lord will come.
But understand this: If the owner of the house had known at what time of night the thief was coming, he would have kept watch and would not have let his house be broken into. So you also must be ready, because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him.
“Who then is the faithful and wise servant, whom the master has put in charge of the servants in his household to give them their food at the proper time? It will be good for that servant whose master finds him doing so when he returns. Truly I tell you, he will put him in charge of all his possessions.
But suppose that servant is wicked and says to himself, ‘My master is staying away a long time,’ and he then begins to beat his fellow servants and to eat and drink with drunkards. The master of that servant will come on a day when he does not expect him and at an hour he is not aware of. He will cut him to pieces and assign him a place with the hypocrites, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.
Image Exegesis: Signs at the End of the Age / Look Sharp and Hold Sway!
“But Christ is faithful as the Son over God’s house. And we are his house, if indeed we hold firmly to our confidence and the hope in which we glory.” (Hebrews 3:6)
“And pray in the Spirit on all occasions with all kinds of prayers and requests. With this in mind, be alert and always keep on praying for all the Lord’s people.” (Ephesians 6:18)
“The end of all things is near. Therefore, be alert and of sober mind so that you may pray.” (1 Peter 4:7)
The metaphor of the budding fig tree in Jesus story stands out above all of the warnings of signs to come, as a symbol of hope, of life out of darkness.
The warning, “blepete,” means to look sharp, pay attention to your surroundings, to be alert tas its archaic meaning indicates “to wear the purple crown.” To hold sway then is to retain the crown no matter what, to endure, to persevere. To hold strong in the face of attack. The Hebrew chazaq (hold fast) as well as the command “sim lev!” (put your heart) into it, both indicate the importance of staying the course (or “way”) –Jesus’ way.
Distraction is the enemy of intimacy. Detachment is the enemy of engagement. “Paying attention” to God in the midst of distractions keeps our heart engaged with God and our salvation (our journey home to our garden and our ultimate walk with God) assured.
Jesus uses the metaphor of spring –the budding of the fig. The fig tree is a bit unusual in that it bears fruit twice. The first bearing is usually not edible. The second toward fall is the true fruit. One must “pay attention” to make sure…to watch and wait….and “wait for it….” so that you see the signs of the true fruit.
Paying attention to signs is important for Jesus. He knows his disciples are going to encounter difficulty and pain, doubt and persecution. He knows it will be hard. He needs them to stay the course, and to stay loyal and rooted in Him. Only in this way, will love and God’s kingdom prevail.
Interestingly, the fruit of the fig looks something like the heart. To pay attention in Hebrew literally means, to “put your heart” into it.
When we practice an instrument, if we truly want to play well, we need to put our heart into practicing and learning.
When we learn a sport, if we truly want to play well, we need passion and gusto and dedication and heart.
In fact, we say often, if someone loses faith in something, “he or she has lost heart in it.” Or “his or her heart just isn’t in it.”
What we mean is that the passion is gone.
Much like our own relationships, our relationship with Jesus needs to have “heart.” We need to be passionate and exuberant about Jesus and His promises to us. We need to hold fast in our relationship with Him, do everything we can to nurture that relationship, and to keep it strong and loving, even when doubt challenges us or others tell us He’s not really there.
To “have heart” is to stay the course in faith.
Take hold of a fig. You can find them in your stores. Hold it. Feel its fleshy exterior, it’s tender interior….full of seeds, full of hope. For Christians, that heart lies too in our Eucharist. The bread and wine/juice offered by Jesus so that we might remember his sacrifice, his life, his presence, and his love for us.
We must never take for granted Jesus’ love for us…or His promise to us. The more we focus on the metaphors that bind us to Him, the more we will “take heart” and never waver in our faithfulness to Him.
ChristianGlobe Networks, Inc., by Lori Wagner
Overview: As Jesus and the disciples are leaving the temple, one of them comments on the massive stones and magnificent buildings. Jesus shocks them by announcing that “not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down” (13:2). Later, on the Mount of Olives, he explains more about when the temple would be destroyed. Jesus connects two important events: (1)the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by the Romans in AD 70, and (2)his return at the end of the age. Some of what Jesus says is fulfilled in the first century (near future) and some is fulfilled at the end of the age (far future). Jesus warns the disciples to expect false messiahs, wars and rumors of wars, earthquakes and famines, persecutions, and betrayals (13:5–12), but those who endure to the end will…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
1 As he was leaving the temple, one of his disciples said to him, "Look, Teacher! What massive stones! What magnificent buildings!"
2 "Do you see all these great buildings?" replied Jesus. "Not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down."
3 As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives opposite the temple, Peter, James, John and Andrew asked him privately, 4 "Tell us, when will these things happen? And what will be the sign that they are all about to be fulfilled?"
5 Jesus said to them: "Watch out that no one deceives you. 6 Many will come in my name, claiming, 'I am he,' and will deceive many. 7 When you hear of wars and rumors of wars, do not be alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come. 8 Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and famines. These are the beginning of birth pains.
9 "You must be on your guard. You will be handed over to the local councils and flogged in the synagogues. On account of me you will stand before governors and kings as witnesses to them. 10 And the gospel must first be preached to all nations. 11 Whenever you are arrested and brought to trial, do not worry beforehand about what to say. Just say whatever is given you at the time, for it is not you speaking, but the Holy Spirit.
12 "Brother will betray brother to death, and a father his child. Children will rebel against their parents and have them put to death. 13 All men will hate you because of me, but he who stands firm to the end will be saved.
14 "When you see 'the abomination that causes desolation' standing where it does not belong--let the reader understand--then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. 15 Let no one on the roof of his house go down or enter the house to take anything out. 16 Let no one in the field go back to get his cloak. 17 How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant women and nursing mothers! 18 Pray that this will not take place in winter, 19 because those will be days of distress unequaled from the beginning, when God created the world, until now--and never to be equaled again. 20 If the Lord had not cut short those days, no one would survive. But for the sake of the elect, whom he has chosen, he has shortened them. 21 At that time if anyone says to you, 'Look, here is the Christ !' or, 'Look, there he is!' do not believe it. 22 For false Christs and false prophets will appear and perform signs and miracles to deceive the elect--if that were possible. 23 So be on your guard; I have told you everything ahead of time.
24 "But in those days, following that distress, " 'the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; 25 the stars will fall from the sky, and the heavenly bodies will be shaken.'
26 "At that time men will see the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory. 27 And he will send his angels and gather his elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of the heavens.
28 "Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. 29 Even so, when you see these things happening, you know that it is near, right at the door. 30 I tell you the truth, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. 31 Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.
Like the farewell discourses of major biblical figures (Jacob, Genesis 49; Moses, Deuteronomy 32–33; Joshua, Joshua 23; Samuel, 1Samuel 12; Paul, Acts 20), Mark 13 attributes to Jesus a final discourse that constitutes the longest block of teaching in the Gospel. Some instructions occur in other contexts in other Gospels (compare Mark 13:9–13 with Matthew 10:17–22), suggesting that some of the teachings in chapter 13 were delivered at various times in Jesus’s ministry. The organizing theme of the chapter is eschatology (from Greek eschatos, “last [things]”), in which future events, including some as distant as the second coming of the Son of Man, are prefigured by the destruction of the temple and fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. Mark places the whole eschatological discourse on the Mount of Olives, where Jesus sits “opposite the temple” (13:3), which is symbolic as well as literal, for the chapter concludes Mark 11–13 (all of which is set in the temple) with the pronouncement of Jesus’s judgment on the temple and prediction of its destruction.
Mark appears to divide Jesus’s teaching on the future into two time frames. Events identified by “all these things” (13:2, 4, 8, 29, 30) relate to the immediate future and the destruction of the temple by Rome in AD 70. Events identified by “those days” (or “that day,” 13:17, 19–20, 24, 32) concern the distant future and the second coming of the Son of Man in final judgment and glory. These two designations result in the following outline:
A1 End of temple and fall of Jerusalem (13:1–13)
B1 Tribulation and second coming of Son of Man (13:14–27)
A2 End of temple and fall of Jerusalem (13:28–31)
Mark 13 warns readers against attempts at constructing timetables and deciphering signs of the second coming. Disciples are admonished to be alert and watchful (13:5, 9, 23, 33, 35, 37), for neither they (13:33, 35) nor even Jesus (13:32) knows the time of the end. Disciples are not to be led astray by even the most obvious signs (13:5–6, 21–22), for the end is not yet (13:7, 13). Discipleship is not fulfilled by predicting future events but by faithfulness in the present, especially in trials, adversity, and suffering.
Construction of the Herodian temple began in 20 BC and was still in progress in Jesus’s day. The temple was constructed on a scale of such magnitude that when it was completed in AD 66, it exceeded in size any other temple in the ancient world. On leaving the temple, the disciples draw Jesus’s attention to the magnificence of its stones and buildings (13:1). Jesus warns the disciples not to be misled by its grandeur, for it will be like the “fig tree withered from the roots” (11:20): “Not one stone here will be left on another” (13:2). The Mount of Olives earlier commenced Jesus’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem (11:1). Now, sitting in authority on its summit (13:3), from which the prophet Zechariah declared God’s judgment on Jerusalem (Zech. 14:1–8), Jesus warns the disciples of two impending dangers. First, the disciples are to “watch out” (13:5) and “be on [their] guard” (13:9) against false teachers and messiahs. Such people will work “signs” (13:4—the word is used negatively here, as it was in 8:11–12); indeed, they “will come in [Jesus’s] name, claiming ‘I am he’ ” (13:6), but they nevertheless “deceive” and lead astray. The first and gravest future danger is not external but internal, inside the household of faith. Second, disciples are warned of external dangers—wars, natural calamities, famine—that will affect all people (13:5–8). Despite the severity of these disasters, they neither impede the spread of God’s reign nor signal the end (13:7). They indeed subject the church to adversity, for believers will be accused, arrested, tried, and beaten (13:9–11). Most distressing, believers will be betrayed, hated, and even killed by fellow believers and family members “because of me” (13:13). Despite these hardships, however, “the gospel [will] be preached to all nations” (13:10). Adversity will afford believers unprecedented opportunities to declare their faith before authorities and rulers, and they need not be anxious about doing so, for the Holy Spirit will speak through them (13:11). In Jesus’s depiction of the future, adversity is not an abnormality but the norm of Christian existence in the end times. Believers who “stand firm to the end will be saved” (13:13).
In 13:14 Jesus mentions a specific calamity (“the abomination that causes desolation”) that appears to prefigure the end times, which are further profiled in verses 14–27. “Abomination” (see Dan. 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; 1Maccabees 1:54) describes the outrage of AntiochusIV, the Seleucid king, who in 168 BC erected an altar to Zeus in the Jerusalem temple and sacrificed a sow on it. His intention was to exterminate Judaism, and his provocation ignited the Maccabean revolt of 166–142 BC. For Jesus, the “abomination” of AntiochusIV was a prefigurement of a blasphemous antichrist who in the end time would do a scandalous deed before the return of the Son of Man in judgment and glory. Scholars often regard the destruction of the temple by Titus in AD 70 as the realization of the “abomination,” for some details in verses 14–18 recall the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. If this is correct, Mark warns readers (“let the reader understand,” 13:14) that the catastrophic fall of Jerusalem in AD 70 is a foreshadowing of the disasters that will take place at the end of time, when “the man of lawlessness” will appear (2Thess. 2:3–4), a blasphemous antichrist who will do horrors and outrages before the return of the Lord. “Those ... days” (13:19)—now referring to the end time—will be so dire and unprecedented that unless God intervenes and shortens them, “no one [will] survive” (13:20). The true Messiah is sparing with signs and wonders in order not to coerce allegiance, but the last days will see many false prophets and messiahs perform many wonders and attract many followers (13:21–22). “Be on your guard” (13:23), warns Jesus, for the true disciple knows these deceptions in advance and is not distracted from faithful obedience to the Lord. In “those days” (13:24)—the end of time—earthly calamities will be mirrored by celestial portents—the darkening of sun and moon and shaking of stars and planets (13:24–25)—all foretold in the Old Testament prophets. Then the Son of Man, though now subjected to suffer in Jerusalem (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34) and destined to be crucified as a common criminal (Phil. 2:8), will come “in clouds with great power and glory” (13:26). Jesus, who is now Son of God in humility, will be revealed as Son of God in power (Rom. 1:3–4) by fulfilling the prophecy of Daniel 7:13 and by vindicating the elect at the final judgment. The great assurance of the second coming is that the Creator and Redeemer of all will condemn evil, end suffering, and gather his “elect” to himself.
Verses 28–31 return to the impending fall of Jerusalem and thus the near future, which was the subject of verses 5–13. As with the fig tree (13:28), which blossoms when winter is past and summer has arrived, when “you see these things happening” (13:29)—that is, the fall of the temple (13:4)—you know that the end is “right at the door” (13:29). The generation to which Jesus speaks will witness the fall of Jerusalem, which itself is a preview of the end of the world. Jesus’s statement that “heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away” (13:31) is a claim only God can make. In making this claim, Jesus assures his disciples that his words will outlive the cosmos and that the world to come is already present in his teaching.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Big Idea: God’s judgment will soon fall on the temple and the land and bring devastation. However, God’s people must not be carried away by false teaching and false rumors but rather should endure patiently in the midst of the persecution.
Understanding the Text
The extensive discourse of chapter13, known as the Olivet Discourse, develops the basic theme in passion week thus far: the fruitlessness (fig tree) and guilt (clearing of the temple) of the Jewish leadership, leading to the curse upon the nation and the impending judgment. In 11:12–20 the “why” of judgment was presented; now the “what” of judgment occurs: the destruction of the temple and the land. It provides a transition from the conflict between Jesus and the leaders (11:27–12:40) to the final events of passion week on Thursday and Friday (chaps. 14–15).
Structure
After the introductory section (the discourse flows out of the two questions in v.4) there are three major sections of the discourse: the prophecy of the destruction (vv. 5–23), the parousia and gathering of the elect (vv. 24–27), and the need for watchfulness in light of the unknown time of the end (vv. 28–37). The section of verses 5–23 has three parts: warnings regarding the signs (vv. 5–8), endurance in the midst of persecution (vv. 9–13), and the abomination and great persecution (vv. 14–23).
Interpretive Insights
13:1 What magnificent buildings! Proceeding through the East Gate of the temple on the way up to the Mount of Olives, a disciple looks back in wonder. Even the Romans recognized the Jewish temple for its beauty (Josephus, J.W.6.267). The walls were constructed of huge stones (some forty to sixty feet long), with the top adorned by white marble with gold plates on the facade. Josephus (J.W.5.222–23) comments that the sun reflecting off it was blinding in its splendor (see also on 11:15).
13:2 Not one stone here will be left on another. The prophets spoke of similar judgments against Jerusalem and the temple in the destruction by the Babylonians (Jer. 9:1–11; Ezek. 24:20–23). In 2Chronicles 36:19 they “set fire” and “broke down the wall.” Jesus has predicted judgment on the people of Israel generally (e.g., 3:28–30; 4:11–12, 25; 8:12; 11:13–14, 17; 12:9), but now the specifics of what that judgment will entail are presented. The devastation of the temple was complete (Josephus, J.W.7.1–4). While part of one wall is preserved (as the “Wailing Wall”), the sanctuary was completely leveled, and the Romans broke apart many of the stones to get at the gold embedded in them.
13:4 when will these things happen? And what will be the sign...? The disciples are dumbfounded and clearly link what Jesus said with the coming of the Day of the Lord. They ask two interrelated questionsabout this day: “when” this complex of events will be inaugurated (thinking that it would be quite soon) and what the “sign” will be that the eschaton is about to be “fulfilled.” Jesus will answer them in reverse order, addressing the “sign” negatively (vv. 5–8), then positively (vv. 14–23), then turning to the “when” in verses 24–27. The Pharisees wanted a sign (8:11) “fulfilled,” and so do the disciples.
13:5 Watch out. This is the first of many warnings to “beware” (vv. 9, 23, 33), calling for spiritual vigilance in a dangerous situation. In this discourse (vv. 5–6, 21–23), the “deceivers” are false messiahs (Christ’s day) and false teachers (Mark’s day) who lead the people into “stumbling” (9:42) or spiritual apostasy.
13:6 Many will come in my name. The first false sign of the end is the presence of false Messiahs and the lies that they proclaim. In the first century there were many false, self-proclaimed messiahs (note Theudas and Judas the Galilean in Acts 5:36–37, and many others in Josephus, J.W.2:261–63, 433–56; 6.285–87; 7.437–39), and in the early church false teachers (the “many antichrists” in 1John 2:18) often led people into dangerous heresies. “In my name” means not that they will claim to be Jesus himself but rather that they will seek to take his messianic office as their own. In 2Thessalonians 2:3 this becomes the great “apostasy” (apostasia) that heralds the end of history.
13:7 wars and rumors of war. The second false sign concerns types of human and natural disasters that are not signs but actually are normal tragedies experienced in a sin-sick world before the eschaton takes place. These “must happen,” meaning that God has allowed these types of tragedies to occur and they are part of his divine plan. The main thing is that counting such disasters as proof that the end is near is wrong.
13:8 earthquakes...famines... the beginning of birth pains. There were numerous famines (Acts 11:28, perhaps the one under Claudius in AD46) and earthquakes (the one that destroyed Laodicea in AD60; others in Philippi, Pompeii, Corinth, Cyprus). Such natural cataclysms often were associated with apocalyptic events, but again Jesus says that they do not signify arrival of the end. Rather, they are “the beginning of birth pains,” or false labor, a metaphor for pain and agony, sometimes with reference to the arrival of the Day of the Lord but here referring to preliminary suffering (“the beginning”) rather than the imminent end. The destruction of Jerusalem is part of these preparatory events.
13:9 You will be handed over. In this interim period it is the lot of believers to experience rejection, opposition, and persecution. This whole section (vv. 9–13) is featured also in Matthew 10:17–22 (//Luke 12:11–12; 21:12–16) because it is apropos both to eschatological and mission contexts. As a matter of fact, all four of these (persecution by councils, synagogues, governors, kings) were experienced by Jesus (in his passion) and Paul (in Acts 22–28). The plural “councils” refers to local councils of elders and leaders who oversaw village life. Synagogues also functioned as law courts, and flogging is referred to in Acts 5:40; 2Corinthians 11:24. Appearing before “governors and kings” turns to Roman persecution (e.g., Pilate, Felix, Festus). Critically, the main purpose is not defense but “witness,” as promised in Mark 13:11 (see below) and as carried out by Jesus before Pilate and by Paul before Felix, Festus, and Agrippa (Acts 26:28–29 [“persuade me to be a Christian”]).
13:10 first be preached to all nations. In their very trials the Christians are being “witnesses” (v.9), and that is part of their primary task, taking God’s “good news” to the world. “First” could indicate before the destruction of Jerusalem,1but in light of verse7 (“the end is still to come”) is better taken as the task of the church (“first” in importance) throughout the church age until Christ returns. That is the meaning in Matthew 24:14 (“then the end will come”), and it fits best here as well. The primary task of the church, whether its members are on trial for their lives or not, is to witness “to all nations.”
13:11 do not worry beforehand about what to say. This often has been taken out of context and applied to preaching and teaching in general, but here and in Matthew 10 it refers to trial situations. Mark uses the same verb (paradid?mi, “to arrest, deliver up”) in the passion predictions (9:31; 10:33), so Jesus’s followers are sharing in his suffering (Phil. 3:10; Col. 1:24). They have no need to worry about their response, for God will give them the words to say (“is given” is a divine passive), and the Spirit will be speaking through them. Spirit-inspired prophetic power trumps mere human rhetoric every time, and this occurred often in the early church (Acts 2:4; 4:8, 31; 6:10; 7:55; 11:24; 13:9).
13:12 Brother will betray brother. Persecution and hatred will be experienced not simply with outsiders but within one’s own family as well, an emphasis found often in Jewish apocalyptic (1En.100:1–2; Jub.23:19; 4Ezra6:24).2There are no examples of this in the pages of the New Testament, but such divisions have taken place often throughout history.
13:13 one who stands firm to the end will be saved. In the face of universal hatred, Jesus asks for endurance, a “firm” trust in God and the perseverance that results. It is debated whether “the end” is the end ofthe persecution (perhaps in the sense of “endure completely”), the end of life, the destruction of Jerusalem, or the end of the age. I prefer to see a double meaning: the end of life for individuals and the end of the age (as in v.7) overall. In light of this, “saved” refers to the blessings of spiritual salvation now and especially of eternal salvation at the parousia.
Theological Insights
This central teaching episode in Mark contains several themes. (1)It is not enough to build a beautiful religious structure; the people within it must be serving God. (2)There is always false teaching taking place, and it is essential for God’s people to know his Word in order to distinguish truth from error. (3)There will always be an attempt to interpret “signs” (many of which are simply natural events) of God’s future actions, and it is essential to understand them correctly and know which are truly from God. (4)Gospel proclamation often will be met with persecution, and when it does, the believer must be ready and stand firm. (5)World evangelism will always have priority for the church.
The Olivet/Eschatological Discourse: The exact meaning of the “Olivet” (the place) or “Eschatological” (the content: “last things”) Discourse is debated: (1)some think that all of the discourse describes the destruction of Jerusalem (e.g., the shaking of the heavens in vv. 24–25= political disaster; the coming of the Son of Man in vv. 26–27= Jesus returning his people from exile);1(2)others believe that verses 5–23 are only about the destruction, with verses 24–27 being about the return of Christ; 2(3)the majority assert that verses 5–23 relate primarily to the destruction but also are proleptic for the events of the last days—the tribulation period and the antichrist.3Because of the presence of apocalyptic language and themes in the passage (see discussion on 13:14–27), the third view is the most likely. There are two main themes: the sovereignty of God in salvation history and the necessity of faith on the part of those passing through the “messianic woes” (the suffering that God has allowed for the messianic community). There is a strong ethical framework, seen in phrases such as “watch out” (v.5), “be on guard” (vv. 9, 23, 33), “do not be alarmed” (v.7), “do not worry” (v.11), and “keep watch” (34, 35, 37).4William Lane says that the primary emphasis is “obedience to Jesus’s call to cross-bearing and evangelism in the confidence that this is the will of God which must be fulfilled before the parousia.”5
The Antichrist: The meaning of the “antichrist” is disputed, since many amillennialists, who believe there will not be a period after Christ’s return when he will rule on earth, do not think that there will be such a figure, but rather that the “beast” of Revelation 13 refers to evil rulers and false teachers throughout history (for this position, the millennium in Rev. 20:1–10 is the church age rather than an earthly reign of Christ after his return). However, it is increasingly being acknowledged that 2Thessalonians 2:1–12 (the coming of the man of lawlessness before Christ returns) and 1John 2:18 (the expectation of the antichrist) show that the early church did indeed expect such a figure. At the end of history a “son of Satan” will arise and lead the world astray into worshiping him and the dragon, pursuing and killing the followers of Christ and establishing a worldwide, one-religion empire of evil. He will reign for forty-two months, fulfilling Daniel 9:27. The dragon, the beast, and the false prophet (Rev. 16:13) will become the false trinity, but their reign will be short; they are doomed and know it (Rev. 12:12). Still, for that period it will become a time of horror beyond anything the world has seen, a sweeping, catastrophic event that will far exceed the combined terrors of every earthly despot who ever lived.
The Rapture: There is considerable difference of opinion on the temporal relationship between the return of Christ and the “tribulation period” (see on Mark 13:14–18). Will the Lord return at the beginning of this period (the pretribulation view), in the middle (the midtribulation view), or at the end (the posttribulation view). The first emphasizes the disciples’ Jewishness, so Jesus is not addressing the church in this passage, and “the Son of Man coming” in Mark 13:26 refers to the second part of the parousia, Jesus’s “revelation” to destroy his enemies in Revelation 19:11–21, rather than to the rapture (see 1Thess. 4:13–18; Rev. 3:10). For this position, there are two returns. The second view argues that the tribulation period (“cut short” in Mark 13:20) is the “three and a half days” in Revelation 11:10–11a, with the rapture being the catching up of the two witnesses in 11:11b–12. The third view sees only one return, as Jesus comes both to rapture the saints (1Thess. 4:13–18; 1Cor. 15:51–52) and to destroy the sinners (1Thess. 5:1–3; 2Thess. 2:8–9; cf. Matt. 24:29; 2Thess. 2:1–3) in one event. The first two views have two returns, the third a single return.6
Teaching the Text
1. The saints witness in the midst of persecution. Some think that during the final persecution under the antichrist at the end of history, the church will virtually take up arms and fight against the beast’s army. Nothing could be further from the truth. Revelation 13:10 says, in effect, “If to prison, to prison we go; if to the sword, to the sword we go.” The messianic army will not “repay evil with evil” (1Pet. 3:9); rather they will fight back not “with the weapons of the world” but “with divine power to demolish strongholds” (2Cor. 10:4)—that is, through bold witness, as with the two witnesses of Revelation 11:3–13, who are leaders in the last days and symbolic of the church in its witness. The church returns love and good deeds for persecution and thereby “heaps burning coals on [the] head” of the enemy (Rom. 12:20), meaning that even as the pagans slander believers, they are watching their goodness and hearing their witness, with the result that many will “glorify God on the day he visits us” (1Pet. 2:12).
2. Beware of the misuse of “signs.” Every generation in church history has contained a few zealots who believed that cataclysmic events of their day meant that the end of history had arrived. The counting of wars and natural disasters is a basic human tendency. Yet the cataclysms of nature are not apocalyptic events, though they seem so to those experiencing them. These “groanings of creation” (Rom. 8:18–22) will continue to occur as long as humankind exists on the face of this earth.
3. An end will come to this present evil world. When evil entered the world through Adam, God had two choices: end the world right then or bring fallen humankind back to himself. He chose the latter, but the destruction of wickedness was always a necessity. The holy God must destroy evil. Thus this world was doomed once sin entered it. Two “ends” are described here: the destruction of the temple and the city of a nation that had deserted God, and the events at the “end” of history when evil will be removed and a new eternal world created.
Illustrating the Text
Judgment coming
Human Experience: Although no one likes getting a traffic ticket, most people are happy that the authorities work to ensure justice on the roads to protect all of us. Although we dislike being the one who receives a ticket, most of us do not mind when someone who is abusing the law is held accountable. In a similar way, there is great comfort in knowing that God will judge all people and put things right in the end.
A faithful witness in the midst of persecution
Bible: Church history is filled with the stories of followers of Jesus who have been martyred for their faith. One of the first who was martyred was Stephen (Acts 7). Though aware that his life was in danger, Stephen refused to compromise God’s truth and preached the gospel to the Sanhedrin. In their rage at the witness of Stephen to Jesus, the Sanhedrin dragged him out of the city and began to stone him. We read in Acts 7:59–60, “While they were stoning him, Stephen prayed, ‘Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.’ Then he fell on his knees and cried out, ‘Lord, do not hold this sin against them.’ When he had said this, he fell asleep.”What an amazing picture of faith and a powerful example to all who witnessed it. In fact, one of those present that day, giving his approval, was Saul, who later would embrace Jesus and become the apostle Paul. There is great power in our faithful witness to Jesus, particularly in the midst of persecution.
The necessity of perseverance
True Story: One of the most inspirational moments in Olympic history is the story of Derek Redmond’s run in the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona. Representing Great Britain in the 400meters, Redmond began very strong, posting the fastest time in the first round and winning his quarter-final race. With just 250yards remaining in his semifinal heat, Redmond’s hamstring tore. He hobbled and then fell to the ground in pain. Stretcher-bearers came to get him, but Redmond refused to quit. He had begun to hobble on one leg to the finish line when his father came out of the stands to help his son. Together they finished to a standing ovation from sixty-five thousand spectators. No matter what we face, the Lord wants us to finish, with the assistance of our brothers and sisters in Christ. Consider using a video clip of this scene.
Sacrilege, Tribulation, and Parousia: The Future Foretold
Big Idea: Evil will have its place in the world and create terrible havoc, but God is sovereign, and the doom of the forces of darkness is certain. So also is Christ’s return, when the saints will be gathered in resurrection into glory.
Understanding the Text
This middle portion of the Olivet Discourse moves into apocalyptic themes, introducing the antichrist and great sacrilege, the devastating tribulation carried out against God’s people, the return of Christ, and the rapture of the saints. In verses 5–13 the destruction of the temple is primary, but in verses 14–23 the final evil comes to the fore (though both sections blend the two together).
Interpretive Insights
13:14 the abomination that causes desolation. This depicts the “desolating sacrilege” that “lays waste” or “devastates” the worship of God, predicted in Daniel 9:27; 11:31; 12:11. The Daniel texts prophesied primarily the actions of the later Syrian king Antiochus Epiphanes, who in 167BC outlawed Jewish observances and both sacrificed a pig on the altar of burnt offering and erected an idol to Zeus in the temple (Josephus, Ant.12.253–254). Jesus sees a second fulfillment in the destruction of the temple, but its meaning is difficult to ascertain. There are three main options. (1)When the Zealots took over the sanctuary (AD67–68), they conscripted Phannias, a completely unqualified man, as their own high priest, allowing criminals to commit all sorts of evil behaviors, even murder, in the sanctuary (Josephus J.W.4.147–61). (2)Titus entered the sanctuary as the Romans were leveling the city and temple, followed later by his soldiers, who brought their standards into the temple and offered sacrifices to them and declared Titus imperator (Josephus J.W.6.316). (3)It could entail a prophecy of the final events of history and the antichrist’s desecration in Revelation 13. Several commentators prefer the first,1arguing that the events at the leveling of the city would not leave time for anyone to flee (v.14b), and a prophecy regarding the antichrist would involve the whole world, not just “Judea.” Yet the events regarding the Zealots were not enough of an outrage to qualify as an “abomination of desolation.”2It is best to see this primarily as a future prophecy of the antichrist figure who would appear at the final chapter in human history (2Thess. 2:3–4; 1John 2:18; Rev. 13:1–10).3I think it likely that, in keeping with the discourse, there is a double fulfillment, first of Roman desecration when the temple was destroyed, then of the activity of the final antichrist in the future.
standing where it does not belong. The Greek text has a masculine participle and should be translated “standing where he should not.” This could be Titus in AD70, but the best understanding is a reference especially to the coming antichrist.4In 2Thessalonians 2:3–4 the “man of lawlessness ... sets himself up in God’s temple, proclaiming himself to be God.” This is undoubtedly Paul’s own interpretation of what Jesus says here, and it provides the best understanding.
let the reader understand. Mark addresses his readers and advises clear thinking and reflection on their part. This is similar to Revelation 13:18; 17:9, “This calls for wisdom,” demanding divinely given wisdom to understand the apocalyptic symbolism. The same is true here; all need God’s help and serious contemplation to catch the meaning.
13:14c–18 those in Judea flee. Jesus turns to five examples of the desperate situation that will take place at the time of the desolating sacrilege. All will have to “flee” for their lives from the powerful invasion. Some background helps makes sense of the images of urgency. The mountains of the Palestinian area were always the place of safety and ancient victories in battle (the view of some that this was Pella [following Eusebius, Hist. eccl.3.5.3] in the Transjordan does not fit because that city lies in a valley). The flat-roofed homes of Palestine often were where people ate and entertained; they had a staircase in the back, and people had to go around front to get their possessions. There would be no time during the swift invasion. Farm laborers will have left their cloaks on the field or at home; again, there would be no time to get them. Pregnant women and nursing mothers could not run fast enough to escape the swift invasion. In the winter it is cold, plus the rains come and both the wadis and the Jordan are too swollen to cross. With the presence of “in Judea,” the examples especially relate to the destruction of Jerusalem, but this is also apocalyptic imagery pointing beyond to “the great tribulation” period in Revelation 7:14. As Craig Evans says, the swiftness and suddenness do not apply well to the events of the Roman invasion, for this occurred in Palestine over two years (AD66–69) before the siege of Jerusalem.5
13:19 days of distress unequaled from the beginning. This alludes to Daniel 12:1: “a time of distress such as has not happened from the beginning of nations until then.” This is the center of the debate between AD70 or the eschaton as the focus of verses 14–20. The idea of unequaled trouble was often used in the Old Testament to describe divine judgment and upheaval.6Thus many consider this hyperbole to describe the terrible events at the destruction of Jerusalem.7 Yet in this apocalyptic context it is actually saying that the upheaval will surpass all Old Testament contexts, so it is best to see the AD70 destruction as a foreshadowing of the final events of human history.8
13:20 cut short those days. The tribulation suffered by God’s people is so severe that without divine intervention not one would live through it. This also goes beyond the imagery of AD68–70 and envisions a worldwide travail (literally, “no flesh [human being] would be saved”). This has sometimes been interpreted as suffering during the church age, but the church age has not been shortened (almost two thousand years so far), and there is no reason to see this as a different point than verse19. So it is the suffering in the Jewish War of AD66–70 as a harbinger of the final suffering (“the elect” would be the followers of Christ). The emphasis is on the sovereignty of God. Without curtailing the time, God could not “gather his elect from the four winds” (v.27), as none would remain!
13:22 perform signs and wonders to deceive. This continues the warning against false messiahs/teachers in 13:5–6. The warning about false prophets performing “signs and wonders” occurs in Deuteronomy 13:1–3. With such the “man of lawlessness” will delude many (2Thess. 2:3, 9–12), and the beast from the land will lead many astray (Rev. 13:13–14; 16:14). The “if possible” in verse22 conveys that God is sovereignly watching over his people and protecting them, as in the “sealing” in Revelation 7:1–4 and the “measuring” in Revelation 11:1–2.
13:23 So be on your guard. The basic theme is reiterated (see on 13:5). Spiritual vigilance is mandated, for there will be no excuse. The future events (both the destruction of Jerusalem and the events of the eschaton) have been prophesied, and the believers must persevere. The events should not catch them unaware or unprepared.
13:24–25 But in those days, following that distress. “In those days” is frequently used in the Old Testament for the coming eschaton (e.g., Jer. 3:16, 18; 31:29). As in Romans 8, 2Peter 3, and Revelation, this follows the Jewish belief that the entire universe, inanimate as well as animate, is involved in the human predicament and will be changed when humankind is changed. The “distress/tribulation” is the period described in verses 14–20 following the desolating sacrilege and great persecution.
the sun will be darkened. R.T.France asserts that this is not the collapse of the universe but rather is cosmic language for vast political change and divine judgment, here on Israel.9This certainly is viable because such apocalyptic language in the Old Testament often describes political catastrophes such as judgment on Israel (Jer. 4:23–28) or the destruction of Pharaoh (Ezek. 32:7–8). Yet in many texts it also portends the coming Day of the Lord,10and that seems more in keeping with what we discovered in verses 14–20. These cosmic signs will occur “after that tribulation,” when the “shaking of the heavens” will presage a new world.
13:26 Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory. Again Jesus describes himself as the “Son of Man” (see at 2:10), the exalted figure of Daniel 7:13 who is enthroned in heaven and has dominion over all the earth. Those who see all of chapter 13 as describing only the AD70 conflagration interpret this as depicting the transfer of authority from the temple to the heavenly Son of Man,11an enthronement of Jesus in heaven and his new presence with the saints in their moment of need. Important in this argument is 13:30, which says that all this will take place before “this generation” has passed away. However, the coming “in the clouds” throughout the New Testament depicts the second coming of Christ (Matt. 16:27; Mark 14:62; Acts 1:9, 11; 1Thess. 4:17; Rev. 1:7), as does the presence of the angels to harvest the earth (Matt. 13:41, 49; 25:31; 1Thess. 4:16). Therefore, verses 24–27 certainly describe Jesus’s return and what in popular language is called “the rapture of the saints.” The “clouds” picture the Shekinah glory of God that went before Israel (Exod. 13:21–22; 14:24), now picturing Jesus returning as the Shekinah to gather his people. The “great power and glory” are taken from Daniel 7:14, so this event will consummate the power and glory of God.
13:27 he will send his angels and gather his elect from the four winds. With overtones of divinity (in the Old Testament only God controlled the angels), Jesus now sends out his harvesters. The passages just noted demonstrate that the angels will “gather” the good and the bad from the earth; in Matthew 13:42–43 the wicked are thrown into “the blazing furnace” and the righteous “shine like the sun.” Here it is “the elect,” Christ’s chosen followers from all over the world, with “the four winds” being a metaphor for “from all directions” (i.e., every corner of the earth [Zech. 2:6]). The idea of the regathering (restoration) of the faithful elect at the Day of the Lord has a rich Old Testament background.12
Theological Insights
Christ’s return is certain, and this world of evil will be destroyed. Those who have chosen sin over God will indeed answer to him. Several insights develop out of these basic themes. (1)At the end of history there will be a “great apostasy” (cf. 2Thess. 2:3) in which many seeming Christians will abandon Christ to follow the cosmic evil powers. (2)The antichrist will appear at the end of history, and there will no longer be neutrality: every person will choose between Christ and supreme evil. (3)Terrible persecution is happening now and will characterize the final period of history (see the “great tribulation” in Rev. 7:14). (4)The return of Christ is a certain event that will end world history. (5)At his return the saints will be caught up to meet the Lord in the air and share his victory.
Teaching the Text
1. God is supreme over the forces of evil. It is clear that the powers of evil are not in control; God is. This is seen in Revelation 13:5–8, where everything that the antichrist does “was given”—that is, allowed by God for that short period. Even the actions of the evil powers are under God’s control and allowed to go only so far. The sovereignty of God (the primary theme of all apocalyptic writings) is absolute, and evil is headed for destruction. Like the Christians in the first century, we often feel as if evil is in control of our world. Every decade that I have lived, we have said, “It cannot get any worse,” and then it did. Still, as Jesus told the disciples, the worst is yet to come. However, as in every natural catastrophe, the storm ends and peace returns. At the end of history the return of God’s peace will last for eternity. The powers of evil are doomed (Rev. 12:12), for God is sovereign and will end this world at the time he has chosen. When the martyred saints cried out for vengeance in Revelation 6:9–11, God gave them white robes (symbolic of future triumph) and told them to wait until “the full number” of those to be killed was “complete.” These are the “messianic woes,” the amount of suffering that God had allowed for the messianic community. At their completion the eschaton would arrive and evil would be destroyed.
2. Christ’s coming is certain but unknown. The return of Christ is everywhere in the New Testament (e.g., Matt. 16:27; Luke 17:30; John 14:3; Acts 1:11; 1Thess. 2:19; 4:16; Rev. 1:7) and can hardly be disputed. However, while the fact of it is irrefutable, its timing has not been revealed. The reason is especially stressed in 13:32–37. God does not wish to reveal the timing of the eschaton, for he wants his people to be always vigilant, living in constant readiness for the parousia. Every generation throughout the history of the church has lived in expectation of Christ’s imminent return, and that is exactly how God wishes it to be. There is no room for lazy, carnal Christians in the kingdom. It is not enough merely to profess Christianity; one must live it out in daily obedience. We can be certain that Christ will return, but not when, so we must live at all times in readiness for that unexpected event.
Illustrating the Text
The warning against false teachers
Human Experience: In order to identify counterfeit money, bank tellers are encouraged to study, touch, and handle real money. The more comfortable tellers are with the real thing, the more likely they will be to identify counterfeit bills. Every generation of Christians is confronted by those who claim to know the truth but are actually teaching false doctrine. How do Christians identify false teachers? Like bank tellers, Christians must become so familiar with the truth that they can identify what is false.
This is the end!
History: Since the death of Jesus, there have been numerous predictions about his return and the end of the world as we know it. Recent examples include Harold Camping, who determined that Jesus would return on May 21, 2011. Camping came up with this specific date by using math based on selected biblical passages. He was wrong. Former NASA engineer Edgar Whisenant wrote a book titled 88Reasons Why the Rapture Will Be in 1988. He was wrong. One of the most famous “end of days” messages was from the preacher William Miller, who proclaimed that Jesus would return on October 22, 1844. He was wrong. Not even Jesus knew when he would return (Matt. 24:36). Instead of focusing on dates, Jesus said, the posture of Christians is to be prepared at every moment for his return. Are you ready?
God is in control.
Bible: One of the clearest themes in the book of Job is that God is in control. In chapters1–2 we see that God puts boundaries on Satan’s harassment of Job (though Job has no knowledge of this). And when God does finally speak out of the whirlwind at the end of the book, it is not with easy answers but with a clear and humbling revelation of his unimaginable knowledge and power. Job is left with a repentant acknowledgment: “I know you can do all things.... Surely I spoke of things I did not understand, things too wonderful for me to know” (42:2–3). There will come times, as in the suffering that Jesus describes in Mark 13, when it will seem as if life is completely out of control. We must be particularly careful in these circ*mstances to judge life based on what we know is true about God rather than judging God based on our experiences. Regardless of what we might experience in life, the truth is that God is in control.
Teaching the Text by Grant R. Osborne, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
Abomination is used of idols (e.g., 2Kings 23:13, 24; Jer. 7:30; cf. Ezek. 8:10), forbidden practices (e.g., 2Kings 23:24), and generally anything contrary to the true worship of Israel’s God (e.g., 2Chron. 15:8; Isa. 66:3; Jer. 4:1; cf. forbidden foods [Lev. 11:10, 13, 42] and ceremonial defilement [Lev. 7:21]). The term also includes the prohibition of idol worship (Deut. 7:25; 27:15; 32:16) but can more widely apply to immorality (e.g., Lev. 18:22, 26 27), prophecy that leads to paganism (Deut. 13:13–14), blemished animals offered in sacrifice to Yahweh (Deut. 17:1), and heathen divination (Deut. 18:9, 12).
The “abomination of desolation” (NIV: “abomination that causes desolation”), or “desolating sacrifice,” refers to the desecration of the Jerusalem temple. The description occurs or is alluded to in Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20; 2Thess. 2:4, as well as 1Macc. 1:54–64. These texts seem to attest to two or three stages of fulfillment of the prophecy.
One of the twelve apostles and brother of Peter. Andrew came from Bethsaida in Galilee (John 1:44), though he lived and worked with Peter in Capernaum as a fisherman (Matt. 4:18). At first a disciple of John the Baptist, he, with an unnamed disciple (possibly John), transferred allegiance to Jesus (John 1:35 40). His first recorded act was to bring his brother to Jesus (John 1:41–42). Subsequently, he was called by Jesus to become a permanent follower (Matt. 4:19) and later was appointed as an apostle (Matt. 10:2).
Births in the ancient world were the domain of women. The women who bore children were often assisted in the birthing process by midwives (Gen. 35:17; 38:28; Exod. 1:1520).
Many women utilized a birthing stool (Exod. 1:16). Upon birth, the newborn often was washed with water, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in cloths (Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7, 12). The OT required women to undergo a rite of purification following childbirth (Exod. 13:2, 20; 34:20; Lev. 12:6–8; Luke 2:22–24). This purification lasted forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter and concluded with the sacrifice of both a burnt offering and a sin offering.
Birthing was valued, and women who were considered to be infertile often faced great shame (1Sam. 1:10–11; Luke 1:25). Pain in childbirth was associated with the sin of Eve (Gen. 3:16), and conversely, absence of pain was interpreted as a sign that a woman was particularly righteous. According to Josephus, Moses was born with no pain to his mother, and the Protevangelium of James indicates the same about Mary’s labor with Jesus.
The Bible sometimes employs the language of birth as a spiritual metaphor. In John 3:3–6 Jesus instructs Nicodemus about the need for spiritual birth by explaining that he must be born again. In Rom. 8:22 Paul describes the whole of creation as experiencing the pain of childbirth as it awaits redemption, and in Gal. 4:19 he says that he is in labor for a second time with the Galatians as he desires the formation of Christ in them.
Besides its normal, literal usage, “branch” is often used figuratively in the Bible to refer to descendants. The image that is created is usually that of a tree or tree stump from which new growth (“the branch”) emerges. The branch is thus both connected to the tree and yet still distinct and unique. In several OT passages the term “branch” is used to describe the coming Messiah, often stressing his descent from King David (Isa. 11:1; Jer. 23:5; 33:15; Zech. 3:8; 6:1213; perhaps Isa. 4:2). Closely connected to the branch imagery of the Messiah is fruitfulness (Isa. 4:2; 11:1) and the dual concepts of justice and righteousness (Jer. 23:5; 33:15). Zechariah 6:12–13 states that “the Branch,” clothed in majesty, will rebuild the temple and take his seat on the throne to rule. In Rom. 11:17–24 Paul uses the branch/tree imagery to explain how Israel (the natural branch) and the Gentiles (the ingrafted branch) both relate to the overall plan and people of God (the tree with its roots).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
The OT depicts God as riding on a cloud (Judg. 5:4; Isa. 19:1; Pss. 18:1112; 68:4; 104:3), and as the creator and sender of clouds: “Ask rain from the Lord in the season of the spring rain; from the Lord who makes the storm clouds, and he will give them showers of rain, to everyone the vegetation in the field” (Zech. 10:1 ESV [see also 1Kings 18:44; Pss. 135:7; 147:8; Prov. 8:28; Isa. 5:6; Jer. 10:13]). Divine judgment is pictured as a dark storm (Isa. 30:30; Lam. 2:1; Nah. 1:3; Zech. 1:15).
At several crucial points God manifested his presence among the Israelites in the form of a cloud: in the wilderness (the “pillar of cloud” of Exod. 13:21 and elsewhere), on Mount Sinai (Exod. 19:9; 24:15), in the tabernacle (Exod. 40:34), in the temple at Jerusalem (1Kings 8:10), and frequently in the visions of Ezekiel (e.g., Ezek. 1:4; 10:3).
The NT continues the imagery of the cloud as a manifestation of divine presence in the story of the transfiguration (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:36), and also in depictions of Jesus as a cloud-rider in Matt. 26:64; Rev. 14:14 (see Dan. 7:13). Jesus was hidden by a cloud when he ascended (Acts 1:9), and believers will be caught up by clouds at his return (1Thess. 4:17; Rev. 11:12).
The foundational story in all of the OT is the story of creation, found in Gen. 12. Throughout the history of interpretation there have been many approaches to understanding these chapters. In the modern world, discoveries from both science and archaeology have challenged some traditional convictions, and debates continue to rage. Still, what Gen. 1–2 communicates is generally clear: (1)it establishes Yahweh, the God of Israel, as the God by whose word all exists; (2)it presents for ancient readers a compelling argument for why they should worship Israel’s God and not other gods of the ancient world.
The book of Daniel contains gripping stories and complex visions of the end of history. While the former are easy to follow and provide clear moral lessons to readers, the latter are quite difficult to interpret. The book is set in a time when the people of God were living under the thumb of powerful pagan nations, and though varied in genre with six stories and four visions, the basic message of the book of Daniel is clear and repeated: in spite of present difficulties, God is in control and will have the victory. The book intends to instill in its readers a sense of calmness in the midst of crisis: although persecuted and/or living in a culture toxic to their faith, not only can they survive but they can also thrive.
Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).
Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).
“The fall” refers to the events of the first human couple’s sin in the garden of Eden (Gen. 23). Although the word “fall” does not occur in the account, Christians have used the term to describe it, taking their cues from Paul’s writings (esp. Rom. 5:12–21). The term is important because it reflects an interpretation that the events in the garden are the entrance of human sin and that the sin has universal effects on humankind.
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).
In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
The English word “gospel” translates the Greek word euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being used seventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu= “good,” angelion= “announcement”), in its contemporary use in the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather a declaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empire with reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, who was thought of as a savior with divine status. These events included declarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and his accession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be traced to the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to the coming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This good news, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’s promises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.
The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.
Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).
Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.
The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).
The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and the redeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historical acts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, and especially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only one God (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because “God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himself through various images and metaphors.
The OT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used for God, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”), often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el ’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“God Almighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who sees me” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive names reveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from the personal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings; thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.
The most prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which is translated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At the burning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moses his personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am” (Exod. 3:1315). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH” seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh, who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the God who was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’ testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living” (Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tied to God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life.
Many of God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “The Lord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands, and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leave the guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”
The Christian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but exists in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spirit is one with God (2Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the same divine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called “Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1; 20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1Cor. 8:6; 2Cor. 3:17–18; 2Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work of creation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1Pet. 1:2), indwelling (John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).
The name “James” is a form of the name “Jacob” (Heb. Ya’aqob; Gk. Iakōbos), which was very popular in the first century. In the NT there are five individuals named “James.”
(1)James the son of Zebedee and the older brother of John. He was martyred by Herod AgrippaI in AD 40 (Mark 1:19; 3:17; Acts 12:2).
(2)James the son of Alphaeus we know very little about other than that he is consistently listed among the disciples (Mark 3:18; Matt. 10:3; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13).
(3)James “the younger” (Mark 15:40), whose mother, named “Mary,” appears in Mark 16:1 just as the “mother of James.” In church tradition, he is sometimes identified with James the son of Alphaeus.
(4)James the father of Judas (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) is mentioned only to distinguish this Judas from Judas Iscariot.
(5)James the brother of Jesus was an early leader of the Jerusalem church (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:1331; 21:18; 1Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19; 2:9, 12; Jude 1). A number of Jesus’ family members became prominent leaders in the early Christian movement in Palestine, James being the most prominent.
A common name in first-century Judaism. The Greek name Iōannēs comes from the Hebrew name “Yohanan.” (1)The Baptist or Baptizer, he was the son of the priest Zechariah and Elizabeth. (See John the Baptist.) (2)The son of Zebedee, he was an apostle originally belonging to the inner circle of the twelve main disciples of Jesus. (See John the Apostle.) (3) John Mark, a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) and the son of Mary (Acts 12:12). (See Mark, John.) (4)The elder. Both 2John and 3John claim authorship by “the elder” (2John 1; 3John 1). Traditionally, all three Johannine Letters, the Gospel of John, and sometimes the Revelation of John have been attributed to John the apostle. However, modern scholarship often attributes 2John and 3John, and sometimes 1John, to “the elder”—John the elder. (5)The seer, the author of the book of Revelation (see 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). Some scholars ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, in line with the view of the church father Irenaeus. Other scholars ascribe the writing of Revelation to a certain John the elder. The book of Revelation does not further identify the author. However, the author is among the prophets, a seer, and his name is “John”—hence, John the seer.
Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are important here.
The word shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon the Egyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesies God’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as the Syrians execute judgment on Israel (2Chron. 24:24).
The most frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat, “judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just (Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut. 10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). At the waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for the people (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim, “judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel (Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:78) and worshiping false gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).
One key word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar to mishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27; 2Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesus himself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).
Another key word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2; Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment (Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3; 5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2Pet. 2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).
A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.
A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).
God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).
God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).
John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).
The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”
In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1Sam. 16:1 13; 2Sam. 2:4, 7).
The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.
The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v.7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v.2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v.8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v.9; see NIV footnote). Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.
Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).
In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.
Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arranged and sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3), miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanical universe. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed to overcome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of the existence of God (Mark 8:11 12). Still less are they clever conjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can be otherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in his infinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things to call attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinely ordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence of his glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptive history.
In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are found in greater number during times of great redemptive significance, such as the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performed also during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of the ninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of these eras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God over pagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).
In the NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantly they attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) and the saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the Synoptic Gospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and the conquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30; Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiah of OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preference for the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured around them (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesus performed were such that only the one who stood in a unique relationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.
Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naive credulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, false prophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even the elect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernment and not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).
The relationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward as sometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nor does faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended to bring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), but not all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesus regarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious (Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than no faith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find its grounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.
It is also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in those who came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberately limited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5), many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could not exercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke 14:1–4).
The fact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, his opponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Arguments about his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles but to the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).
The ancient Jewish calendar was tied to the phases of the moon, with the months beginning with each new moon. The new moon was celebrated with multiple offerings (Num. 28:1115). Festival days were calculated from the new moon.
The moon figures prominently in prophecy. At the day of the Lord, the sun and the moon will be darkened (e.g., Joel 2:10). While most ancient Near Eastern cultures worshiped the moon, Israel was forbidden such worship (Deut. 4:19).
The account of the moon’s creation recorded in Gen. 1:16 does not mention the moon by name. This is in keeping with the general tone of the creation story, wherein God, almost incidentally, creates the things that were worshiped by contemporary cultures.
A ridge of peaks about two miles long running north-south to the east of Jerusalem. It may also refer to the middle two of these peaks directly east of the temple. Kidron and Gethsemane lie at the foot of the mount. It was so named for the large number of olive trees there in ancient times.
David wept here because of Absalom’s betrayal (2Sam. 15:30). Here the glory of the Lord rested after withdrawal from Jerusalem (Ezek. 11:23). The Lord will return to the Mount of Olives (Zech. 14:4).
Sometimes Jesus spent the night here (Luke 21:37). He customarily withdrew to Gethsemane at the foot of this mount (John 18:2). Thus, on the evening before his trial Jesus and the disciples went to the Mount of Olives (specifically Gethsemane) after leaving the upper room (Matt. 26:30), and it was there that the betrayal by Judas took place.
Jesus’ triumphal entry began on the Mount of Olives (Matt. 21:1), and he discoursed about the future there (Matt. 24:3). After his resurrection, Jesus gathered and instructed his disciples on the Mount of Olives before ascending to heaven (Acts 1:12).
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’ twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock” in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,” which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John 1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, God was able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishment of the NT church.
In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of the one praying.
The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.
Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:1920; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).
Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).
The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor. 14:15).
Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).
A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).
In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).
Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.
Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).
Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).
Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.
Signs are visible, typically being an object, a mark, an event, or a custom. In addition, signs are symbolic, pointing to things not seen. Signs often reveal or share some quality with the unseen reality to which they point, and so they are a token of that reality. In the Bible, signs typically are caused or instituted by God, and in many cases they are miraculous. However, in a few cases signs are set forth as the work of other gods (as in Deut. 13:12) or as being instituted by merely human design (as in Num. 2:2). In summary, a sign may be defined as something seen that points to something unseen, and that is instituted or created to do so by someone’s intention.
Several examples support this definition. Keeping the Sabbath is a sign of God’s rest after creating the world (Exod. 31:15); the Sabbath rest itself imitates God’s rest. Circumcision is a sign of God’s promise to both Abraham and his descendants; circumcision is also a physical mark that is related to human fertility (Gen. 17:11). The rainbow is a sign of God’s promise not to destroy the world by water and rain; rainbows appear only with rain (Gen. 9:13). (In the original Hebrew text, both the custom of circumcision and the rainbow that appears after the great flood are called “signs.”) The early Passover plagues both bring and warn of judgment, while the healing miracles of Jesus both bring and promise blessing. While signs point to unseen realities, these realities do not diminish the value or importance of the visible world. Instead, the unseen realities themselves are ultimately expressed in the visible world.
In the OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers to humanity in general or to a specific individual. In Ezekiel, for instance, God addresses the prophet himself as “son of man,” possibly indicating his human status compared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique status as God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.
One of the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7 because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in the Gospel tradition. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’s vision (7:114), while the second half contains its interpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13). This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are “like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and “like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesome that it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom (7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient world empires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man” has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthly Israel, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed with authority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people of the Most High” receive in verse27. In this way, the “one like a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthly saints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly being such as the archangel Gabriel (9:21) or Michael (10:13; 12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenly counterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battle on its behalf.
In the NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospels and, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus), is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. Unlike in Daniel, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with the definite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a known figure. In first-century Judaism many Jews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as savior and judge. The OT provides the most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in the Gospels.
The Son of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories: earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings. Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Son of Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in 2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel the Son of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance in Yahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in the Gospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesus also predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raised again. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight of Jesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the little horn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man” represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonable that he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text of Daniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference to Dan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62 the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to his vindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus in Mark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicial responsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33). Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for the return of the Son of Man (12:39–40; 17:22–37; 21:34–36).
Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly temple functioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev. 1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud” (14:14–16).
In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.
The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.
The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).
The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).
According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).
Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).
The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.
The word “star” is used in the Bible to refer to any bright point of light in the night sky; no linguistic distinction is made between stars and planets (cf. 2Pet. 1:19; Rev. 2:28; 22:16).
Stars often are used to illustrate the scope of God’s promises (Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4; Deut. 10:22). They were used throughout the ancient Near East to represent the king, an association also evident in the OT (Num. 24:17; Isa. 14:12). Stars also were named, and some were objects of worship, a practice condemned in Israel (Amos 5:26; cf. Deut. 4:19). Stars were subject to study by foreign sages who sought to predict the future based on their observations, although their efficacy is denied (Isa. 47:13). Nonetheless, the arrival of the Messiah is heralded by a star in the service of its creator (Matt. 2:210). The falling (Rev. 6:13) and the darkening (Joel 2:10; 3:15) of stars are used to depict the coming of the day of the Lord in judgment.
Rocks and stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12; Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as a sign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a marker or memorial (Gen. 31:4650), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). A single rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen. 28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones (Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also be used to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb, such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus (Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).
Stone was used as a construction material, particularly for the temple (1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15; Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundation and for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26; Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22 refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becoming the cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf. Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh. 8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf. 2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai the Israelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed” stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). The phrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, since stone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf. Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); the term “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to an idol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 20:32).
Stones were used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown by hand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam. 17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone” refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typically functioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29; Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts 7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd (Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).
The phrases “precious stones” and “costly stones” refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor. 3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings 10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and for decoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones on the high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on his breastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12, 17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of precious stones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).
Rocks and stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as a rock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common (1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12), hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless (Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone” describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumbling stone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble (Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faith in Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).
While in the OT suffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev. 26:1636; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25; cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by which blessing comes to humanity.
The Bible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17; 6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18; 1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assume that he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4, 20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in the final chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friends for their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writer makes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness. Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume that blindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesus rejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3, 6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).
The NT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in the OT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps. 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presented as the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation, God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8; Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the price for sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set free from sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18). (3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom. 8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet. 2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13), and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to suffer as his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provides hope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil. 3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev. 21:4).
The NT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it has become part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering of believers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel (Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11; 6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16; 2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb. 10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), and the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of the development toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor. 4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).
Suffering is associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal (2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness, sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10); comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8); blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor. 4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James 1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christian suffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character and hope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity and completeness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentary when compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom. 8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7; 4:12–13).
Throughout the Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OT law provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged, and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10, 35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesus regularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3; 19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’ responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom. 12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom. 12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visit prisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.
The sun was worshiped as a god or goddess in all the nations around Israel in OT times, and the polemic against sun worship in Deut. 4:19; 17:3; Jer. 8:2; Job 31:2628 suggests that sun worship also made inroads into Israel. By way of contrast, the OT attests to the sun’s created status (Gen. 1:16) and counts it as subject to God’s control (e.g., Josh. 10:12–13).
In the OT, the sun often is associated with and symbolic of life (e.g., Eccles. 7:11; cf. Ps. 58:8) or justice (Ps. 19:6; Job 38:13; Mal. 4:2; cf. 2Sam. 23:3–4). The darkening of the sun is presented as a sign of judgment heralding the day of the Lord (Isa. 13:10; Ezek. 32:7; Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 8:9; Matt. 24:29; Mark 13:24; Rev. 6:12; 9:2), which many associate with the darkness that fell during the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44).
A chronological division of the night. The term is derived from soldiers or others guarding, or “watching,” something during specified portions of the night. In the OT, there apparently were three watches or divisions in the night. Gideon and his men struck the Midianites at the beginning of the “middle watch” (Judg. 7:19). The Roman system had four divisions or watches in the night, and the Gospels report Jesus walking on the lake during the “fourth watch” (Matt. 14:25; Mark 6:48 ESV, NASB, NKJV). The term can also be used to refer to the guard placed on duty to guard something (Neh. 4:9).
Direct Matches
“Abomination” is a translation of the Hebrewwords shiqquts and to’ebah used primarily in the KJV (NIV usesterms such as “detestable,” “desecrated,” and“unclean”). The term shiqquts is used of idols (e.g.,2 Kings 23:13, 24; Jer. 7:30; cf. Ezek. 8:10), forbiddenpractices (e.g., 2 Kings 23:24), and generally anything contraryto the true worship of Israel’s God (e.g., 2 Chron. 15:8;Isa. 66:3; Jer. 4:1; cf. forbidden foods [Lev. 11:10, 13, 42] andceremonial defilement [Lev. 7:21]). The term to’ebah includesthe prohibition of idol worship (Deut. 7:25; 27:15; 32:16) but canmore widely apply to immorality (e.g., Lev. 18:22, 26–27),prophecy that leads to paganism (Deut. 13:13–14), blemishedanimals offered in sacrifice to Yahweh (Deut. 17:1), and heathendivination (Deut. 18:9, 12).
The“abomination of desolation” (NIV: “abomination thatcauses desolation), or “desolating sacrifice,” refers tothe desecration of the Jerusalem temple. The description occurs or isalluded to in Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14;Luke 21:20; 2 Thess. 2:4; as well as 1 Macc. 1:54–64.These texts seem to attest to two or three stages of fulfillment ofthe prophecy.
First,Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; and 1 Macc. 1:54–64 clearlyspeak of the actions of the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes(175–164 BC) against the Jerusalem temple in 167 BC. He was theyounger son of Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Thename “Epiphanes” means “manifest,” implying“manifest as a god.” Antiochus’s ambition was touse the common culture of the Greeks (Hellenism) to unite the diverseSeleucid Empire. In 167 BC, after being repelled from Egypt by theRomans, Antiochus unleashed his fury on Jerusalem. His soldiersattacked the city on the Sabbath, killing much of the male populationand enslaving the remaining women and children (1 Macc. 1:29–36;2 Macc. 5:24–26). There followed the prohibition of allJewish rites, along with the rededication of the Jewish temple to theGreek god Zeus. Anyone caught reading the Torah, observing theSabbath and dietary laws, or circumcising their male babies waskilled (1 Macc. 1:54–64; Josephus, Ant. 12.248–64).In December of 167 BC the first pagan sacrifice was offered on thealtar in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (1 Macc.1:54).
Antiochusat first met pockets of resistance from faithful Jews who opposed hisorders and were therefore martyred (2 Macc. 6:10–7:42).With Mattathias and his five sons, however, open defiance againstAntiochus’s policies ensued. Mattathias, a priest in the townof Modein, refused to sacrifice to heathen gods and killed the king’sofficer sent to enforce the edict. This incident sparked a Jewishrebellion led by Mattathias’s family (the Maccabees) thatculminated in his son Judas’s defeat of Antiochus’sforces in December of 164 BC. At that time Judas reconsecrated thetemple to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and Israel resumed theobservance of the Jewish law (1 Macc. 4:52–59). Not longthereafter, Antiochus, who had unsuccessfully tried to invade Persia,died of illness in 164 BC (1 Macc. 6:1–17; 2 Macc.1:13–17; 9:1–29; Josephus, Ant. 12.354–59). Thus,the prophecies of Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11 regarding the riseand fall of Antiochus Epiphanes had come true.
Second,Daniel’s prophecy apparently was not completely fulfilled withAntiochus, for Luke 21:20 labels the Roman assault on Jerusalem in AD70 as the “desolation.” In fact, the Roman destruction ofthe Holy City and its temple was an intensification of the OTprediction.
Third,some interpreters would extend the application of the prophecy of theabomination of desolation to the distant future. They contend thatthe ultimate fulfillment of Daniel’s prediction will occur inconnection with the end-time temple to be built by Israel, which theantichrist will desecrate. Supporters of this viewpoint appeal toMark 13:14; Matt. 24:15; 2 Thess. 2:4 (cf. Rev. 11).
Thosewho identify only two stages of fulfillment for Daniel’sprophecy understand Mark 13:14 and Matt. 24:15 to pertain not to afuture end-time temple but to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70 (cf.Luke 21:20). Furthermore, they see in 2 Thess. 2:4 an allusionto the emperor Caligula’s (Gaius) plan to place astatue of himself in the Jerusalem temple in AD 40 (which, because ofhis assassination, did not occur).
“Abomination” is a translation of the Hebrewwords shiqquts and to’ebah used primarily in the KJV (NIV usesterms such as “detestable,” “desecrated,” and“unclean”). The term shiqquts is used of idols (e.g.,2 Kings 23:13, 24; Jer. 7:30; cf. Ezek. 8:10), forbiddenpractices (e.g., 2 Kings 23:24), and generally anything contraryto the true worship of Israel’s God (e.g., 2 Chron. 15:8;Isa. 66:3; Jer. 4:1; cf. forbidden foods [Lev. 11:10, 13, 42] andceremonial defilement [Lev. 7:21]). The term to’ebah includesthe prohibition of idol worship (Deut. 7:25; 27:15; 32:16) but canmore widely apply to immorality (e.g., Lev. 18:22, 26–27),prophecy that leads to paganism (Deut. 13:13–14), blemishedanimals offered in sacrifice to Yahweh (Deut. 17:1), and heathendivination (Deut. 18:9, 12).
The“abomination of desolation” (NIV: “abomination thatcauses desolation), or “desolating sacrifice,” refers tothe desecration of the Jerusalem temple. The description occurs or isalluded to in Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14;Luke 21:20; 2 Thess. 2:4; as well as 1 Macc. 1:54–64.These texts seem to attest to two or three stages of fulfillment ofthe prophecy.
First,Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; and 1 Macc. 1:54–64 clearlyspeak of the actions of the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes(175–164 BC) against the Jerusalem temple in 167 BC. He was theyounger son of Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Thename “Epiphanes” means “manifest,” implying“manifest as a god.” Antiochus’s ambition was touse the common culture of the Greeks (Hellenism) to unite the diverseSeleucid Empire. In 167 BC, after being repelled from Egypt by theRomans, Antiochus unleashed his fury on Jerusalem. His soldiersattacked the city on the Sabbath, killing much of the male populationand enslaving the remaining women and children (1 Macc. 1:29–36;2 Macc. 5:24–26). There followed the prohibition of allJewish rites, along with the rededication of the Jewish temple to theGreek god Zeus. Anyone caught reading the Torah, observing theSabbath and dietary laws, or circumcising their male babies waskilled (1 Macc. 1:54–64; Josephus, Ant. 12.248–64).In December of 167 BC the first pagan sacrifice was offered on thealtar in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (1 Macc.1:54).
Antiochusat first met pockets of resistance from faithful Jews who opposed hisorders and were therefore martyred (2 Macc. 6:10–7:42).With Mattathias and his five sons, however, open defiance againstAntiochus’s policies ensued. Mattathias, a priest in the townof Modein, refused to sacrifice to heathen gods and killed the king’sofficer sent to enforce the edict. This incident sparked a Jewishrebellion led by Mattathias’s family (the Maccabees) thatculminated in his son Judas’s defeat of Antiochus’sforces in December of 164 BC. At that time Judas reconsecrated thetemple to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and Israel resumed theobservance of the Jewish law (1 Macc. 4:52–59). Not longthereafter, Antiochus, who had unsuccessfully tried to invade Persia,died of illness in 164 BC (1 Macc. 6:1–17; 2 Macc.1:13–17; 9:1–29; Josephus, Ant. 12.354–59). Thus,the prophecies of Dan. 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11 regarding the riseand fall of Antiochus Epiphanes had come true.
Second,Daniel’s prophecy apparently was not completely fulfilled withAntiochus, for Luke 21:20 labels the Roman assault on Jerusalem in AD70 as the “desolation.” In fact, the Roman destruction ofthe Holy City and its temple was an intensification of the OTprediction.
Third,some interpreters would extend the application of the prophecy of theabomination of desolation to the distant future. They contend thatthe ultimate fulfillment of Daniel’s prediction will occur inconnection with the end-time temple to be built by Israel, which theantichrist will desecrate. Supporters of this viewpoint appeal toMark 13:14; Matt. 24:15; 2 Thess. 2:4 (cf. Rev. 11).
Thosewho identify only two stages of fulfillment for Daniel’sprophecy understand Mark 13:14 and Matt. 24:15 to pertain not to afuture end-time temple but to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70 (cf.Luke 21:20). Furthermore, they see in 2 Thess. 2:4 an allusionto the emperor Caligula’s (Gaius) plan to place astatue of himself in the Jerusalem temple in AD 40 (which, because ofhis assassination, did not occur).
The English word “angel” refers to nonhumanspirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel”(Heb. malak; Gk. angelos) mean “messenger” and can referto one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterlyloyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). Themessenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).
Messengerssent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were hismessengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).
OldTestament
Thereare few references to angels (plural) in the OT. In heaven theypraise God and worship him (Pss. 103:20; 148:2). God sends his angelsto accompany his people (Gen. 28:12; 32:1) and to protect them(Ps. 91:11) and once sent them to destroy Egypt (Ps. 78:49).
Anangel in human form was referred to as a “man of God”(Judg. 13:6), the same term used for a prophet (cf. 1 Kings13:14).
Angelsevoked fear and wonder. They are described as shining (Matt. 28:3;Acts 12:7). When humans bowed to worship angels, they were rebukedbecause God alone is to be worshiped (Rev. 22:8–9).
Godhimself, not being a part of the created order, cannot be seen. Inorder to communicate with people, he sometimes speaks through a formcalled “the angel of the Lord.” The angel of the Lordappeared to Abraham in human form (Gen. 18; cf. Josh. 5:13–15),but to Moses as fire (Exod. 3:2). When he spoke, it was God speaking(Exod. 3:4, 14). He guided and guarded Israel out of Egypt andthrough the desert (23:20–23). He appeared within the pillar offire or cloud (13:21–22; 14:19), being seen through the pillaron occasion as “the glory of the Lord” (16:7–10;24:16–17; 33:9–11; 40:17, 34–38), and later as hefilled Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 8:11).
Ina series of visions of the glory of the Lord (Ps. 18:7–15;Ezek. 1; Rev. 4:7) we encounter four “living creatures”called “cherubim” (Ezek. 10:20–22) that are notexplicitly identified as angels and whose visible appearance is parthuman and part animal. Their form was placed on the cover of the Arkof the Covenant (Exod. 25:18) and embroidered on the curtains of thetabernacle (26:1). Cherubim guarded the eastern entry into the gardenof Eden (Gen. 3:24), implying that Eden, the place where God appearedon earth, was now excluded from the area allocated to humankind.
InIsaiah’s vision of God’s glory, he describes, literally,“flaming ones” (Heb. seraphim) located above God andcrying, “Holy, holy, holy” (Isa. 6:1–7). All weknow of them is that they had six wings, whereas the cherubim hadfour (Ezek. 1:11). It may be that seraphim are not a separate classof angels but simply a description appropriate to all angels, sinceelsewhere we are told (Ps. 104:4; Heb. 1:7) that God’s angelsare “flames of fire.”
Angelsare also called “holy ones” (Deut. 33:2) and “spirits”or “winds” (Zech. 6:5; cf. Ps. 104:4). Since God’speople are also called “holy ones” (Dan. 7:27; NIV: “holypeople”), it may be difficult to know if a given reference isto angels or people (e.g., Deut. 33:3).
Angelsare first named in the book of Daniel: Gabriel, whose name means“hero of God” (8:16; 9:21; [cf. Luke 1:19, 26]); Michael,whose name means “who is like God?” (10:13, 21; 12:1 [cf.Jude 9; Rev. 12:7]) and who is also called “one of the chiefprinces,” “your prince,” and “the greatprince.” The Hebrew word for “prince” (sar) alsomeans “commander” (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:55) and thusmight refer to Michael’s standing as a commander of God’sangelic armies (cf. Jude 9, where he is called “archangel”).During the intertestamental period, texts outside the Scriptures tendto give more attention to angels in elaborate stories, introducingsuch names as Raphael and Uriel (see Tobit, 1 Enoch, etc.).
IntertestamentalPeriod and New Testament
Duringthe intertestamental period some Jews came to think that angelsranked higher than humans, since the Greeks asserted that anythingphysical was evil and only purely spiritual beings could be holy.Increasingly detailed stories about angels served to distance Godfrom the evils of physical reality. The myth of the fall of theangels arose during this time through a series of writings claimingto come from the pen of Enoch (1 Enoch), stimulating a largenumber of other writings. Some people even went so far as to worshipangels (Col. 2:18).
Somereferences to angels are difficult to understand. In Matt. 18:10Jesus warns people to treat children well because their angels haveconstant access to God. The simplest meaning is that angelicmessengers will tell God what has happened with these children.Rhoda’s reference to Peter’s “angel” as if itwere his ghost probably reflects a local superstition (Acts 12:15) ora sectarian Jewish belief that the righteous become angels when theydie. Paul’s comment that a woman should have “authorityover her own head” (i.e., her head covered) “because ofthe angels” (1 Cor. 11:10) remains something of a puzzle,and his unique reference to the language of angels appears to behyperbole (1 Cor. 13:1).
Paulwarns us that Satan can appear as “an angel of light,”meaning that he would work through one who claimed to bring a messagein accord with the gospel (2 Cor. 11:14). The devil has his“angels/messengers” (Matt. 25:41), although we knowlittle about them.
Angelsdo not marry, reproduce, or die (Matt. 22:30; Mark 12:25; Luke20:35–36). The NT affirms that angels rank below God’speople and serve them (1 Cor. 6:3; Heb.1:4–14; 2:5, 16),as they did Jesus (Matt. 4:11; Mark 1:13; cf. 1 Kings 19:5–7;Luke 22:43). Angels have limited understanding or knowledge of God’splans and purposes (1 Pet. 1:12), although they reveal God’sword (Rev. 1:1). They bring the spirits of God’s people toheaven when they die (Luke 16:22) and implement God’s judgmenton the last day (Matt. 13:39, 49; 16:27; 24:31; 25:31; Mark 8:38;13:27; Luke 9:26; 2 Thess. 1:7; Rev. 14:15–19). Theyrejoice when a sinner repents (Luke 15:10). Christians already standin the greater assembly that includes the angels (Heb.12:22).Eventually, Jesus will welcome his people into the heavenly courtroomin the presence of the angels (Luke 12:8–9; Rev. 3:5). See alsoArchangel.
Brotherhood and Israelite Identity
AncientIsraelite society was fundamentally organized along the lines ofkinship and family. As a result, relations among brothers figureprominently in the biblical construction of Israelite identity, whichis conceptualized through a series of fraternal relationships, oftenrife with conflict: Isaac and Ishmael; Jacob and Esau; and the twelvesons of Jacob, among whom the relationship between Joseph and hisbrothers is pivotal in the history of Israel. Long after thelifetimes of the patriarchs, the Israelites continued to understandthe structure of their society and the relationships between itsconstituent tribes as a complex of fraternal relationships. Thepatriarchal stories of Genesis were a mirror of later social andpolitical realities. If the sibling rivalries of antiquity explainedcompetition between later social groups, the memory of thebrotherhood of those groups also provided a basis for solidarity bothwithin Israel (“You may not put a foreigner over you, who isnot your brother” [Deut. 17:15 ESV]) and with near neighbors(“You shall not abhor an Edomite, for he is your brother”[Deut. 23:7 ESV]). Similarly, the fraternal relationship betweenMoses and Aaron endured in later Israelite society as a model forsynthesizing distinct strands of the religion into a coherent whole.
Forlater Israelite readers of the Bible, the brotherly relationships ofGenesis and Exodus were not simply stories about dead ancestors;rather, they provided a compelling account of the organization ofIsraelite society as they knew it (see Zech. 11:14) and of therelationship between Israel and its neighbors, several of which weredescended from the brothers of the Israelite patriarchs (see Ps.83:6; Amos 1:11; Obad. 10; Mal. 1:2–4). Even though Hiram andSolomon did not trace their relationship back to a common ancestor,they extended the language of the brother alliance to their own(1 Kings 9:12–13).
Biblicalliterature cultivates a predilection for the underdog, elevating along series of younger, disadvantaged brothers: the heroes of Israelincluded Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Gideon (Judg. 6:15), and David (1 Sam.16:11).
Thebrother’s wife represented a special case. Sexual relationswith a brother’s wife were strictly forbidden (Lev. 18:16;20:21; see also Mark 6:18), but under certain circ*mstances one wascompelled to marry a brother’s widow (Deut. 25:5–9; seevariations of this practice in Gen. 38:8; Ruth 4:5–6). Thiscustom underlay a question that Jesus was asked concerning sevenbrothers, each of whom died, repeatedly widowing the same woman(Matt. 22:24; Mark 6:17; Luke 14:26).
Brothersin the New Testament
AmongJesus’ twelve disciples were several pairs of brothers,including Peter and Andrew (Mark 1:16 pars.) and James and John thesons of Zebedee (Mark 1:19). Jesus himself had brothers (Mark3:31–35; John 7:3–5; Acts 1:14), including James, Joseph,Simon, and Judas (Mark 6:3; see also Gal. 1:19).
Inaddition to the story of seven brothers mentioned above, several ofJesus’ teachings drew illustrations from the relationship ofbrothers, including the stories of the prodigal son (Luke 15:11–32)and of the rich man and Lazarus (see Luke 16:28). Jesus singled outthe belittling of a brother as a particularly heinous sin (Matt.5:22). In the Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere, “brother”stands not only for a literal brother but also more generally forone’s fellow human.
Inlight of the OT conception of Israel as a nation of brothers (seeDeut. 17:15 and the discussion above), it is not surprising thatJesus and the NT authors adopted the language of brotherhood todescribe the Christian community. The “brotherhood ofbelievers” (1 Pet. 2:17 NIV 1984) derives from thecommon brotherhood of Christians with Christ himself. Brotherhoodwith Christ depends not on physical descent but on a sharedcommitment to obedience to God (Matt. 12:50; 23:8), and this loyaltyis deeper than that of the literal family, such that it can turn“brother against brother” (Mark 13:12).
Thepredominant form of address in the NT Epistles is “brothers,”and in Acts the Christians are most commonly designated as “thebrothers.” Paul also refers to fellow Jews, includingnon-Christians, as his “brothers” (Acts 22:1; Rom. 9:3ESV). See also Brotherly Love.
The “day of the Lord” is a phrase used frequentlyby the OT prophets as well as by several NT writers. In general, itis used to refer to the coming time when God will intervenepowerfully and decisively in human history to bring about hispromised plan.
TheOT prophets also use other similar phrases such as “the day,”“the day when,” and “that day” to mean thesame thing as the “day of the Lord” (Heb. yom yhwh). Inregard to the future, the prophets speak regularly of imminentjudgment and future restoration, both for Israel/Judah and for thenations. Some of their prophecies find fulfillment after only a fewmonths or years (the Assyrian and Babylonian invasion), and some oftheir prophecies are fulfilled generations later by the return of theexiles under Ezra and Nehemiah. Some are fulfilled by the firstcoming of Christ, and some still await fulfillment. In poeticfashion, the OT prophets often telescope all the multifacetedsignificant prophetic events of the future into one spectaculardramatic time called “the day of the Lord.”
Includedin this “day” are several significant prophetic actionsby God. First, the imminent judgments on Israel and Judah by the handof the Assyrians and the Babylonians are included in the “dayof the Lord” (Isa. 3:18–4:1; Amos 5:18–20).Likewise, merged into the “day of the Lord” is God’sjudgment on the foreign nations that conspired against Israel andJudah (Isa. 13:1–22; Obad. 15). Finally, the prophets will usethe phrase “day of the Lord” to refer to that time ofglorious future restoration and blessing that God will establish forboth Israel/Judah and for the nations (Isa. 11:10–12; Joel3:14–18). In this final context the “day of the Lord”is often tightly interconnected with the messianic promise.
Inthe NT, the phrase “day of the Lord” (Gk. hēmera toukyriou) is used in much the same manner as in the OT. Some aspects ofthe day of the Lord were clearly fulfilled by the first coming ofChrist. For example, the OT prophet Joel prophesies that on the dayof the Lord, God will pour out his Spirit on all kinds of people(Joel 2:28–31), a prophecy that found fulfillment on the day ofPentecost (Acts 2:17–21). So the OT messianic propheciesconnected to the day of the Lord sometimes find fulfillment in eventssurrounding Christ’s first coming (as seen in the NT), whilesome await his future, second coming.
TheNT writers often employ this important phrase from the OT, but theyuse it primarily to refer specifically to the future, second comingof Christ (1Cor. 5:5; 1Thess. 5:2; 2Thess. 2:2;2Pet. 3:10, 12). Just as the OT uses synonyms for the “dayof the Lord,” the NT uses terms such as “that day,”“those days,” “the great day,” or “theday of our Lord Jesus Christ” as synonyms for the “day ofthe Lord,” the time of Christ’s glorious return (e.g.,Mark 13:24; 1Cor. 1:8; Rev. 6:17; 16:14).
The “day of the Lord” is a phrase used frequentlyby the OT prophets as well as by several NT writers. In general, itis used to refer to the coming time when God will intervenepowerfully and decisively in human history to bring about hispromised plan.
TheOT prophets also use other similar phrases such as “the day,”“the day when,” and “that day” to mean thesame thing as the “day of the Lord” (Heb. yom yhwh). Inregard to the future, the prophets speak regularly of imminentjudgment and future restoration, both for Israel/Judah and for thenations. Some of their prophecies find fulfillment after only a fewmonths or years (the Assyrian and Babylonian invasion), and some oftheir prophecies are fulfilled generations later by the return of theexiles under Ezra and Nehemiah. Some are fulfilled by the firstcoming of Christ, and some still await fulfillment. In poeticfashion, the OT prophets often telescope all the multifacetedsignificant prophetic events of the future into one spectaculardramatic time called “the day of the Lord.”
Includedin this “day” are several significant prophetic actionsby God. First, the imminent judgments on Israel and Judah by the handof the Assyrians and the Babylonians are included in the “dayof the Lord” (Isa. 3:18–4:1; Amos 5:18–20).Likewise, merged into the “day of the Lord” is God’sjudgment on the foreign nations that conspired against Israel andJudah (Isa. 13:1–22; Obad. 15). Finally, the prophets will usethe phrase “day of the Lord” to refer to that time ofglorious future restoration and blessing that God will establish forboth Israel/Judah and for the nations (Isa. 11:10–12; Joel3:14–18). In this final context the “day of the Lord”is often tightly interconnected with the messianic promise.
Inthe NT, the phrase “day of the Lord” (Gk. hēmera toukyriou) is used in much the same manner as in the OT. Some aspects ofthe day of the Lord were clearly fulfilled by the first coming ofChrist. For example, the OT prophet Joel prophesies that on the dayof the Lord, God will pour out his Spirit on all kinds of people(Joel 2:28–31), a prophecy that found fulfillment on the day ofPentecost (Acts 2:17–21). So the OT messianic propheciesconnected to the day of the Lord sometimes find fulfillment in eventssurrounding Christ’s first coming (as seen in the NT), whilesome await his future, second coming.
TheNT writers often employ this important phrase from the OT, but theyuse it primarily to refer specifically to the future, second comingof Christ (1Cor. 5:5; 1Thess. 5:2; 2Thess. 2:2;2Pet. 3:10, 12). Just as the OT uses synonyms for the “dayof the Lord,” the NT uses terms such as “that day,”“those days,” “the great day,” or “theday of our Lord Jesus Christ” as synonyms for the “day ofthe Lord,” the time of Christ’s glorious return (e.g.,Mark 13:24; 1Cor. 1:8; Rev. 6:17; 16:14).
Nineteenth-century BC Egyptian reliefs show city gates inSyria-Palestine. Arched gates were found in the second millennium BC.A door (Heb. petakh) often had side posts, a top post (lintel), and athreshold. The temple door was made of juniper wood (1Kings6:34). Doorposts and lintels (Heb. mashqop) are mentioned in thestory of the exodus (Exod. 12:7, 22–23).
Doorsseparated external and internal space. In the OT story of the flood,the ark contained a door (petakh; Gen. 6:16). God closed the doorbehind those inside the ark (Gen. 7:16), separating them from theoutside world.
Inthe Greco-Roman world, doors represented turning points. Janus, theRoman god of doors (Lat. ianua), prevented evil from entering thehome. Janus had two faces, one looking inward and one lookingoutward. The Romans named a month after Janus, Januarius, at the turnof their year, as a door between past and future.
InMatthew, a door (thyra) separated the unprepared from the prepared inkingdom life (Matt. 25:10–12). Likewise, life and destructionwere separated by a door or gate (Matt. 7:13–14; Luke 13:24).The NT records Jesus referring to himself as “the door”(John 10:1–9 ESV, NASB; NIV: “gate”) and, in turn,standing at the door of preparedness by (Matt. 24:33; Mark 13:29) andin fellowship with (Rev. 3:20) his followers.
The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).
Heavenand Earth
Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.
Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.
TheTheology of Land
Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).
Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).
Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.
Inheritance
Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).
Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.
Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).
Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).
Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).
Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).
Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).
Messianic pretenders in the NT who through dramatic “signsand wonders” posed a great temptation to the earliestChristians. False Christs or messiahs are specifically mentionedtwice in the NT, both in sections of the Gospels describing the timeof the return of Jesus Christ. First, Matt. 24:24 speaks of “falsemessiahs and false prophets” who will deceive many throughspectacular miracles. Such figures are so convincing that they areeven a threat to the faith of “the elect,” althoughMatthew has a strong hope that the elect ultimately will not fallvictim to the deceptions of these pretenders. Mark 13:22 is aparallel passage to Matt. 24:24 and uses the same language todescribe false Christs. Both passages are warnings to Christians tobe vigilant in assessing the claims of any person who claims to bethe Messiah returned to judge the world. The false Christs will beknown as such because the actual second coming of Christ will beunmistakable and in the open, whereas the messianic pretenders plotin secret and will come to nothing (Matt. 24:26–28; Mark13:23–29).
Otherfalse messiahs in the earliest days of the church were those claimingto be Israel’s military and political saviors. Amisunderstanding of the nature of the Messiah prompted by anexclusive focus on OT texts promising victory over Israel’snational foes (see Ps. 2; Hag. 2:20–23; Zech. 9:9–10;12:7–13:1) paved the way for militaristic messianic pretendersto draw followers into armed conflict with the Roman authorities(such as Theudas and Judas the Galilean in Acts 5:36–37 and“the Egyptian” in Acts 21:38). Such false messiahs didnot claim divine status, but they were a constant source oftemptation for Jews and Christians in the first century because oftheir promise of victory over imperial Roman oppression.
Messianic pretenders in the NT who through dramatic “signsand wonders” posed a great temptation to the earliestChristians. False Christs or messiahs are specifically mentionedtwice in the NT, both in sections of the Gospels describing the timeof the return of Jesus Christ. First, Matt. 24:24 speaks of “falsemessiahs and false prophets” who will deceive many throughspectacular miracles. Such figures are so convincing that they areeven a threat to the faith of “the elect,” althoughMatthew has a strong hope that the elect ultimately will not fallvictim to the deceptions of these pretenders. Mark 13:22 is aparallel passage to Matt. 24:24 and uses the same language todescribe false Christs. Both passages are warnings to Christians tobe vigilant in assessing the claims of any person who claims to bethe Messiah returned to judge the world. The false Christs will beknown as such because the actual second coming of Christ will beunmistakable and in the open, whereas the messianic pretenders plotin secret and will come to nothing (Matt. 24:26–28; Mark13:23–29).
Otherfalse messiahs in the earliest days of the church were those claimingto be Israel’s military and political saviors. Amisunderstanding of the nature of the Messiah prompted by anexclusive focus on OT texts promising victory over Israel’snational foes (see Ps. 2; Hag. 2:20–23; Zech. 9:9–10;12:7–13:1) paved the way for militaristic messianic pretendersto draw followers into armed conflict with the Roman authorities(such as Theudas and Judas the Galilean in Acts 5:36–37 and“the Egyptian” in Acts 21:38). Such false messiahs didnot claim divine status, but they were a constant source oftemptation for Jews and Christians in the first century because oftheir promise of victory over imperial Roman oppression.
The law warns against those who claim to speak for God butwhose words are not from God. Such false prophets are exposed whentheir predictions go unfulfilled, but even a prophet who makes truepredictions is false if he or she encourages idolatry. False prophetsmust be put to death (Deut. 13:1–5; 18:20–22).
Duringthe monarchy, some false prophets blatantly promoted Baalism (1Kings18:19; Jer. 2:8; 23:13). Others seemed orthodox but, motivated bygreed (Jer. 6:13; 8:10; Mic. 3:5, 11; cf. Luke 6:26), actually saidwhatever people wanted to hear (1Kings 22:6; cf. 2Chron.18:5; 28; Isa. 30:10; Jer. 5:31; Ezek. 22:27–28). A frequentmark of these prophets was that they stressed God’sfaithfulness to promises of blessing while ignoring his faithfulnessto promises of judgment. According to them, Israel would never bedefeated, however much the people sinned (Jer. 6:14; 8:11; 23:17;Ezek. 13:10, 16; Mic. 2:6); the false prophets themselves set anexample of licentiousness (Isa. 28:7; Jer. 23:14–15).Ironically, the complacency that this engendered increased Israel’sdanger (Jer. 14:13–16; 23:19–22; 27:9–18; Lam.2:14; Ezek. 13:5).
Oftendirect confrontations took place between true and false prophets(e.g., 1Kings 18; Neh. 6:14; Jer. 20:1–6; 26:8–11;28–29; Mic. 2:6). The true prophets pleaded with Israel toreject false prophecy (Jer. 23:16; 29:8–9). They pronouncedjudgment on both the prophets and their followers (Isa. 9:14–15;Jer. 2:26; 4:9; 8:1; 13:13; 23:33–39; 50:36; Ezek. 13; Zeph.3:4; Zech. 13:2–6). False prophets would become blind to thetruth they denied and become unable to prophesy at all (Isa. 29:10;Ezek. 7:26; Mic. 3:6). Their false predictions would be frustrated(Isa. 44:25; Jer. 37:19), and in particular the exile that they saidwould never happen was now inevitable (Jer. 14:15–18).
Falseprophecy was as much a danger in the NT era as it was in the OT.Jesus warned that “wolves in sheep’s clothing”would continue to lead many astray. Some would either promote theworship of false messiahs or even pretend to be the Messiah (Matt.24:23–24; Mark 13:21–22), but, as ever, they could beidentified by their “fruit” (Matt. 7:15–23; 24:11).
Paulsaid that any so-called prophet who opposed his own teaching, or whotaught error while claiming that the teaching came from Paul himself,was false (1Cor. 14:37; 2Thess. 2:2; cf. 2Cor.11:4; Gal. 1:8). Luke called Elymas the sorcerer, who opposed Paul, afalse prophet (Acts 13:6–12). More generally, Peter saw allheretical teachers as direct successors of the false prophets of theOT, denying the Lord and exploiting the people for gain (2Pet.2:1). They replicate the error of Balaam (2Pet. 2:15–16).For John, the particular mark of the false prophet was the denialthat Jesus is the Christ (1John 4:1–3). The third figurein the bestial false trinity in John’s Revelation is called“the false prophet” (Rev. 16:13; 19:20; 20:10) andentices men and women to worship the dragon rather than Jesus.
A method of punishment whereby the offender is whipped or beaten with rods. Although flogging is not assigned to punish specific crimes in pentateuchal law, Deut. 25:1–3 does refer to judges having guilty parties flogged and limits the number of lashes to forty. Romans used flogging as a precursor to crucifixion, but their method often involved the use of whips with shards of metal or bone incorporated into the strands. Thus, it could do a great deal of damage to the victim and is sometimes called “scourging.” Jesus was subjected to flogging prior to his crucifixion (Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1), and he warned that his followers would be flogged (Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9). The lives of the apostles fulfilled these predictions, as flogging became a routine price for their outspoken faith (Acts 5:40; 16:23; 22:24–25; 2Cor. 11:23; Heb. 11:36).
A method of punishment whereby the offender is whipped or beaten with rods. Although flogging is not assigned to punish specific crimes in pentateuchal law, Deut. 25:1–3 does refer to judges having guilty parties flogged and limits the number of lashes to forty. Romans used flogging as a precursor to crucifixion, but their method often involved the use of whips with shards of metal or bone incorporated into the strands. Thus, it could do a great deal of damage to the victim and is sometimes called “scourging.” Jesus was subjected to flogging prior to his crucifixion (Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1), and he warned that his followers would be flogged (Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9). The lives of the apostles fulfilled these predictions, as flogging became a routine price for their outspoken faith (Acts 5:40; 16:23; 22:24–25; 2Cor. 11:23; Heb. 11:36).
A method of punishment whereby the offender is whipped or beaten with rods. Although flogging is not assigned to punish specific crimes in pentateuchal law, Deut. 25:1–3 does refer to judges having guilty parties flogged and limits the number of lashes to forty. Romans used flogging as a precursor to crucifixion, but their method often involved the use of whips with shards of metal or bone incorporated into the strands. Thus, it could do a great deal of damage to the victim and is sometimes called “scourging.” Jesus was subjected to flogging prior to his crucifixion (Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1), and he warned that his followers would be flogged (Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9). The lives of the apostles fulfilled these predictions, as flogging became a routine price for their outspoken faith (Acts 5:40; 16:23; 22:24–25; 2Cor. 11:23; Heb. 11:36).
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelmingpower and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod,has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which inother contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV:“terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy inpossessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation”(Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, itrefers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israeland to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 17–19). Hecarefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin withthe golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them(33:12–23).
God’sglory is often associated with a cloud. Perhaps better stated, God’sglory often is intentionally obscured by a cloud so that people arenot overwhelmed by the radiance of his presence. Such is the case ontop of Mount Sinai as Moses ascends it (Exod. 24:15–18). God’sglory as associated with the cloud is also closely connected to thetabernacle and the temple. When the tabernacle is completed, Godmakes his presence known there by filling it with the cloud thatrepresents his glory (Exod. 40:34–38). Later, the temple too isfilled with God’s glory made manifest in the cloud (1Kings8:10–11). The ark of the covenant, the most potent symbol ofGod’s presence, is also seen as a manifestation of his glory(1Sam. 4:21–22).
God’sglory is overwhelming, and human beings cannot experience itsfullness and survive. Thus, glory is often connected with God’sacts of judgment. For instance, when Korah the Levite and Abiram theReubenite rebel in the wilderness, God appears ready for judgmentagainst the people in the form of the glory-cloud (Num. 16:19–21),though Moses’ intercession spares the bulk of the people fromthe judgment that comes on the leaders of the rebellion (see also16:41).
ThePsalms celebrate God’s glory. Psalm 24 is an example. Theoriginal setting of the psalm is likely the return of the ark of thecovenant from the battlefield. The priest at the head of the army,led by the ark, asks a priest or gatekeeper, “Lift up yourheads, you gates; be lifted up, you ancient doors, that the King ofglory may come in.” The priestly gatekeeper asks, “Who isthis King of glory?” eliciting the response, “The Lordstrong and mighty, the Lord mighty in battle.” Many otherpsalms share this theme or call on Israel to glorify the Lord (seePss. 29:9; 34:3; 63:3; 104:31 as examples).
Theprophets have the privilege of intimate fellowship with God andprofound experiences of God’s glory. Isaiah accepts hiscommission as a prophet in a vision of the throne room of God. Hesees angelic figures calling out: “Holy, holy, holy is the LordAlmighty; the whole earth is full of his glory” (Isa. 6:3).Ezekiel reports an amazing encounter with God in his glory thatcauses him to fall facedown on the ground (Ezek.1:28).
Inthe NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ(John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God.When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory(Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
The kingdom of God is a major theme in the Bible. While thetheme is most fully developed in the NT, its originis the OT,where the emphasis falls on God’s king-ship. God is king ofIsrael (Exod. 15:18; Num. 23:21; Deut. 33:5; Isa. 43:15) and of allthe earth (2Kings 19:15; Pss. 29:10; 99:1–4; Isa. 6:5;Jer. 46:18). Juxtaposed to the concept of God’s present reignas king are references to a day when God will become king over hispeople (Isa. 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Zeph. 3:15; Zech. 14:9). Thisemphasis on God’s kingship continues throughout Judaism andtakes on special significance in Jewish apocalypticism and itsanticipation of the kingdom of God in the age to come, whichabandoned any hope for present history. Only at the end of the agewill the kingdom of God come. This idea of God’s kingdom isfurther developed throughout the NT.
TheSynoptic Gospels
Inthe Synoptic Gospels the phrase “the kingdom of God”occurs over one hundred times in Mark, Luke, and Matthew (where“kingdom of heaven” is a synonym for “kingdom ofGod”). Three views have been defended regarding whether and towhat extent the kingdom of God was present in Jesus’ ministry.In other words, how are we to interpret the phrase “kingdom ofGod” in the Synoptics? The three views are consistenteschatology, realized eschatology, and inaugurated eschatology.
Consistenteschatology.Albert Schweitzer, a biblical scholar from the late nineteenthcentury, first popularized consistent eschatology. Here, “consistent”means consistent with the apocalyptic Judaism of Jesus’ day,which interpreted the kingdom of God as something coming in thefuture. Judaism at the time of Christ divided history into twoperiods: this age of sin, when sin rules, and the age to come, whenthe Messiah is expected to bring the kingdom of God to earth.Schweitzer concluded that an apocalyptic understanding of the kingdomwas foundational not only for Christ’s teaching, but also tounderstanding his life. Thus, Schweitzer maintained that Jesusbelieved that it was his vocation to become the coming Son of Man.Initially, Jesus revealed this messianic secret only to Peter, James,and John. Later, Peter told it to the rest of the Twelve. Judas toldthe secret to the high priest, who used it as the grounds for Jesus’execution (Mark 14:61–64; cf. Dan. 7:13).
Accordingto Schweitzer, when Jesus sent out the Twelve on a mission toproclaim the coming kingdom of God, he did not expect them to return.The Twelve were the “men of violence” (cf. Matt. 11:12)who would provoke the messianic tribulation that would herald thekingdom. Whereas some earlier scholars believed that one could onlywait passively for the kingdom, Schweitzer believed that the missionof Jesus was designed to provoke its coming. When this did nothappen, Jesus determined to give his own life as a ransom for many(Mark 10:45) and so cause the kingdom to come.
Accordingto Schweitzer, Jesus took matters into his own hands by precipitatinghis death, hoping that this would be the catalyst for God to make thewheel of history turn to its climax—the arrival of the kingdomof God. But, said Schweitzer, Jesus was wrong again, and he died indespair. So for Schweitzer, Jesus never witnessed the dawning of theage to come; it lay in the distant future, separated from thispresent age.
Onthe positive side, Schweitzer called attention to the fact that themessage of Jesus is rooted in first-century apocalyptic Judaism andits concept of the kingdom of God. This connection is stillfoundational to a proper understanding of biblical prophecy and theGospels today. On the negative side, Schweitzer’s selective useof evidence and rejection of the historicity of much of the Gospeltradition resulted in a skewed perspective on the present dimensionsof Jesus’ eschatology.
Realizedeschatology.In contrast to futurist eschatology, where the kingdom of God awaitsa final consummation at the end of history, realized eschatologyviews the kingdom of God as already realized in the person andmission of Jesus. The futurist aspects of Jesus’ teaching arereduced to a minimum, and his apocalyptic language is viewed assymbolic of theological truths.
Theperson most responsible for advocating this position is Britishscholar C.H. Dodd. In his 1935 book Parables of the Kingdom, hefocused on Jesus’ teachings that announced the arrival of thekingdom with his coming. For instance, in Luke 11:20 Jesus says, “Butif I drive out demons by the finger of God, then the kingdom of Godhas come upon you” (cf. Luke 17:21; Matt. 13). Eschatologybecomes a matter of the present experience rather than any kind offuture event. The kingdom has fully come in the messianic ministry ofJesus.
Mostinterpreters have criticized Dodd’s realized eschatology forignoring Jesus’ teachings that point to a future consummationof the kingdom (e.g., Matt. 24–25; Mark 13). When all of Jesus’teachings are considered, futurist eschatology balances realizedeschatology. To be sure, the kingdom arrived with Jesus, but Jesushimself taught that history still awaits a final completion. Thekingdom of God is both “already” and “not yet,”which leads us to the third view of the relationship of the kingdomof God to the ministry of Jesus Christ.
Inauguratedeschatology. Thethird view, inaugurated eschatology, is commonly connected with thetwentieth-century Swiss theologian Oscar Cullmann. Like others beforehim, Cullmann understood that the Jewish notion of the two agesformed an important background for understanding the message ofJesus. According to Judaism, history is divided into two periods:this age of sin and the age to come (i.e., the kingdom of God). ForJews the advent of the Messiah would effect the shift from the formerto the latter. In other words, Judaism viewed the two ages asconsecutive. According to Cullmann, Jesus Christ announced that theend of time, the kingdom of God, had arrived within history (see Mark1:15 pars.; esp. Luke 4:43; 6:20; 7:28; 8:1, 10; 9:2, 11, 27, 60, 62;10:9, 11; 11:20; 13:18, 20; 16:16; 17:20–21; 18:16–17,24–25, 29; Acts 28:31). Yet other passages suggest thatalthough the age to come had already dawned, it was not yet complete.It awaited the second coming for its full realization (Luke 13:28–29;14:15; 19:11; 21:31; 22:16, 18; 23:51; Acts 1:6). Hence the adjective“inaugurated” characterizes this eschatology. Such a viewis pervasive in the NT (see, e.g., Acts 2:17–21; 3:18, 24;1Cor. 15:24; 1Tim. 4:1; 2Tim. 3:1; Heb. 1:2; 1John2:18). So for inaugurated eschatology, the two ages are simultaneous:the age to come exists in the midst of this present age. Christianstherefore live in between the two ages until the parousia (secondcoming of Christ).
Wemay break down the data in the Synoptic Gospels regarding the“already/notyet” aspects concerning the kingdom ofGod in this manner: Mark, probably the first Gospel written, recordsJesus’ programmatic statement in 1:15: “The time hascome.... The kingdom of God has come near.”Mark, along with Luke and Matthew, then goes on to demonstrate thatJesus’ miracles, teachings, death, and resurrection inauguratedthe kingdom of God. Yet it is also clear from Matthew, Mark, and Lukethat the final manifestation of the kingdom has not yet happened. Wemay draw on Luke as representative of all three Synoptics. Luke’sGospel indicates that the kingdom was present for Jesus (Luke 7:28;8:10; 10:9–11; 11:20; 16:16; 17:20–21), but it alsoawaited the second coming for its completion (6:20–26; 11:2;12:49–50, 51–53; 13:24–30; 21:25–29;22:15–18, 30). The same dual aspect of the kingdom pertains toLuke’s second volume, Acts. The kingdom was present in Jesus’ministry and now through his disciples (Acts 1:3; 8:12; 19:8; 20:25;28:23–31), but it will not be completed until Christ comesagain (1:6; 14:22).
TheGospel of John
John’sGospel has only three references to the kingdom of God. Nicodemus wastold by Jesus that he needed to be born again to enter the kingdom ofGod (3:3–5). Yet Jesus’ kingdom is not worldly in nature,but spiritual (18:36). Although the Gospel of John contains both thepresent (“already”) aspect and the future (“notyet”) aspect, the focus is clearly on the present. This is whymany scholars label the Fourth Gospel the “Gospel of RealizedEschatology.” This emphasis on the “already” can beseen in John in the following ways: (1)Eternal life, orentrance into the kingdom of God, can be a present possession (3:5–6,36; 6:47, 51, 58; 8:51; 10:28; 11:24–26). (2)Theeschatological promise of sonship is granted to the believer in Jesusnow (1:12–13; 3:3–8; 4:14). (3)The generalresurrection has already begun (5:25). (4)The Spirit, the giftof the end time, currently indwells believers (7:37–39;14:15–31; 15:26–27; 16:5–16; 20:22–23).(5)Final judgment is determined by one’s present responseto Jesus (3:19; 5:22–24, 27, 30–38; 9:38; 12:31–33).(6)The spirit of antichrist has already entered the world sceneto oppose Christ (6:70; 13:2, 27). (7)Jesus’ death on thecross seems to absorb some elements of the messianic woes or aspectsof tribulation. In other words, Jesus’ passion was where theend-time holy war was waged, and his death and resurrection began theend of the forces of evil (15:18–16:11).
Onthe other hand, the Gospel of John also includes some typical future(“not yet”) aspects of eschatology. For example, thefuture resurrection is still expected (5:26–30). Likewise, thefuture second coming of Christ is alluded to (14:1–4; 21:22).Admittedly, however, the “already” aspect of the kingdomof God seems to overshadow the “not yet” perspective inthe Fourth Gospel.
PaulineLiterature
Thephrase “kingdom of God” and/or “kingdom of Christ”occurs twelve times in Paul’s writings.
Rom.14:17 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Cor. 4:20 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Cor. 6:9-10 – kingdom of God (2x) (future tense)
1Cor. 15:24 – kingdom of Christ/God (present/future tense)
1Cor. 15:50 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Gal.5:21 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Eph.5:5 – kingdom of Christ/God (future tense)
Col.1:13 – kingdom of the Son (present tense)
Col.4:11 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Thess. 2:12 – his [God’s] kingdom (future tense)
2Thess. 1:5 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Threeobservations emerge from the chart: (1)The kingdom ofChrist/God is both present and future, already here and not yetcomplete. This is consistent with the Gospels and Acts. (2)Christand God are, in at least two instances, interchanged, suggestingequality of status between them (cf. Eph. 5:5; Rev. 11:15; 12:10).(3)In 1Cor. 15:24 we find the most precise description ofthe exact relationship between the kingdoms of Christ and God: theinterim messianic kingdom begun at the resurrection of Christ willone day give way to the eternal kingdom of God. Such a temporarykingdom is attested to in apocalyptic Judaism and may underlie Rev.20:1–6.
Christianstherefore live in between the two ages, in the messianic kingdom.
Hebrewsand the General Epistles
Hebrewsand the General Epistles continue the theme of the “already/notyet”aspects of the kingdom.
Hebrews.The following ideas associated in Second Temple Judaism with thearrival of God’s kingdom are seen by the author of Hebrews tohave been fulfilled at the first coming of Christ: (1)theappearance of the Messiah of the last days indicates the dawning ofthe kingdom of God (1:2; 9:9–10); (2)the greattribulation/messianic woes that were expected to occur in connectionwith the advent of the Messiah are now here (2:5–18; cf. 5:8–9;7:27–28; 10:12; 12:2); (3)the outpouring of the HolySpirit has happened (6:4–5); (4)the manifestation of theeschatological high priest at the end of history has taken place inJesus (7:26–28), who has also established the new covenant ofthe last days (8:6–13). Compare the preceding statements inHebrews with that author’s explicit mention of the presence ofthe kingdom of God in 12:18–28. And yet the kingdom of God isnot yet fully here. The church continues to suffer the messianicwoes, as is evidenced in the intermingling of Jesus’ sufferingof the great tribulation with the present afflictions of theChristian (2:5–18; 3:7–4:6; 5:7–6:12; 10:19–39;12:1–2; 13:11–16). Furthermore, the exhortations topersevere in the faith that punctuate the book of Hebrews (2:1–4;3:7–4:13; 5:11–6:12; 10:19–39; 12:14–29) area familiar theme in Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.
TheGeneral Epistles.The main message of James is that the last days are here (1:2; 5:3)and with it the messianic woes (1:2–12; 5:1–12).Therefore, believers will need to faithfully endure the greattribulation until the second coming of Christ. But there are twoindications that James also teaches that the kingdom of God hasdawned in the midst of the great tribulation. First, Christiansexperience even now the eschatological quality of joy (James 1:2–3;cf. Joel 2:21–27). Second, Christians also share in theend-time gift of wisdom (James 1:5–8).
FirstPeteris similar to James with regard to its inaugurated eschatology. Thus,the church suffers the messianic woes/great tribulation (1Pet.1:6, 11; 3:13–17; 4:12–19; 5:1–9). Nevertheless,the age to come/kingdom of God has broken into the midst of this age,as evidenced by the eschatological joy and God’s protectivepower that it brings (1:5–6).
SecondPeterdoes seem to stress the “not yet” aspect of the kingdomof God. Thus, the kingdom of God still waits to be entered (1:11), ishindered by end-time apostasy (2Pet. 2), and has been postponed(3:1–10). Yet the “already” aspect of the kingdomis not entirely absent. This is evidenced by the fact that thetransfiguration of Christ on the mountain was a display of the comingpower and glory of the age to come, a glory revealed to the discipleson the mountain and now communicated to all believers (1:16–19).
Judeis devoted to alerting Christians to the reality that they are in themidst of the end-time holy war (vv. 3, 20–23), as can be seenby their struggle with the false teaching of end-time apostasy (vv.5–19). Nevertheless, because believers possess theeschatological gift of the Holy Spirit, they will prevail to fullyenter the kingdom of God (v.20).
TheLetters of John attest to the overlapping of the two ages—thatis, inaugurated eschatology. Thus, on the one hand, the spirit ofantichrist is here (1John 2:18; 2John 7), along with thefalse teaching that it breeds (1John 2:20–29; cf. 2–3John); but on the other hand, the Johannine community has theend-time anointing of the Holy Spirit, which preserves believers fromevil and deception (1John 2:20–21; 3:1–10).Moreover, Christians presently have eternal life through Christ, oneof the blessings of the kingdom of God (1John 5:11–13).
Revelation
The“already/notyet” aspects of the kingdom of God aremanifested in Revelation in the following way: the kingdom of God hasalready dawned in heaven, but it has not yet appeared on earth.Regarding the former, it is clear from 1:9; 5:1–14; 12:1–6that Jesus’ death and resurrection inaugurated the advent ofthe kingdom of God in heaven. Thus, Jesus obediently underwent themessianic woes on the cross and was then raised to heavenly glory,triumphant over the great tribulation. There in heaven, Christ reignsas the invisible Lord over all (including Caesar). But that thekingdom of God has not yet descended to earth is clear in Revelationfrom two present realities. First, even though Jesus has endured thegreat tribulation/messianic woes, his followers continue to face manytrials (chaps. 6–18). There is no deliverance for them fromsuch affliction until the return of Christ in glory (chap. 19). Theonly possible exception to this is the divine protection of the144,000 (chaps. 7; 14). Second, the kingdom of God has not appearedon earth; that event awaits the parousia (chap. 20 [assuming that thepremillennial interpretation of that chapter is the most viablereading]). In all of this, it seems that the messianic woes/greattribulation are the divine means for purging the earth in preparationfor the future arrival of the temporal, messianic kingdom (chap. 20).After Christ’s one-thousand-year reign on earth, this temporalmessianic kingdom will give way to the eternal kingdom of God and itsnew earth and new heaven (chaps. 21–22). It must beacknowledged, however, that interpretations of chapters 20–22greatly vary, depending on whether one takes a premillennial,amillennial, or postmillennial perspective.
Conclusion
Thepreceding data thus seem to confirm that the most apt description ofthe relationship between the two ages and the kingdom of God thatinforms the NT is inaugurated eschatology: with the first coming ofChrist, the kingdom of God/the age to come dawned, but it will not beuntil the second coming of Christ that the age to come/kingdom of Godwill be complete. The church therefore lives in between the times.That is to say, the age to come has broken into this present age, andit is only through the eye of faith that one can now perceive thepresence of the kingdom of God.
Outgrowth(s), usually green, of the stem of a plant. In Gen.8:8–11, an olive leaf in the beak of a dove signals to Noahthat the waters of the flood are receding. Many OT passages containreferences to leaves as a metaphor for prosperity (Ps. 1:3; Prov.11:28) as well as for destitution (Job 13:25; Isa. 1:30; 34:4; 64:6).A key difference between the two metaphors depends on whether theleaf is withered. The righteous will thrive like a green leaf (Prov.11:28), whereas Job, discussing his suffering, refers to himself as awindblown leaf (Job 13:25). In the NT, Jesus curses a fig tree thathas leaves but no fruit, immediately causing it to wither (Matt.21:18–22; Mark 11:13–14, 20–25). Leaves are alsoused as an illustration by which Jesus teaches about expectations forthe Son of Man to return (Mark 13:26–28). In Revelation, theleaves of the tree of life are for the healing of the nations (22:2).
The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.
OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).
NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).
Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).
TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).
Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).
Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.
The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.
OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).
NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).
Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).
TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).
Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).
Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.
OldTestament and Jewish Literature
Inthe OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers tohumanity in general or to a specific individual. The general use of“son of man” occurs in poetic texts in which the phrasefunctions as a synonym for “man” or “human being”(Num. 23:19; Isa. 51:12; Pss. 144:3; 146:3). In Ps. 8:4 (ESV) thepsalmist asks, “What is man that you are mindful of him, andthe son of man that you care for him?” Echoing the creation ofman in Gen. 1, “man” and “son of man” in thispsalm have a royal status: being “crowned with glory and honor”and receiving dominion over all of God’s creation (Ps. 8:5–6).Later, in Ps. 80:17, “son of man” refers to the nation ofIsrael. The psalmist supplicates that God would make strong forhimself the “son of man” over Israel’s enemies(80:12–16). In Ezekiel, God addresses the prophet himself as“son of man,” possibly indicating his human statuscompared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique statusas God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.
Oneof the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in theGospel tradition. Scholars debate the date of the composition of thischapter. While some argue for the sixth century BC, others prefer asecond-century BC date during the oppressive reign of AntiochusIVEpiphanes. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’svision (7:1–14), while the second half contains itsinterpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “onelike a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13).This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are“like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and“like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesomethat it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom(7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient worldempires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man”has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthlyIsrael, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed withauthority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people ofthe Most High” receive in v.27. In this way, the “onelike a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthlysaints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly beingsuch as the archangel Gabriel (Dan. 9:21) or Michael (Dan. 10:13;12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenlycounterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battleon its behalf.
Insubsequent Jewish literature, the “one like a son of man”from Dan. 7 becomes quite active, appearing to be a development ofthe static image who is “given authority, glory and sovereignpower” (Dan. 7:14). In 1En. 37–71, a text thatdates from the last half of the first century BC to the first half ofthe first century AD, the “Son of Man” is seated upon histhrone and will judge “the kings and the mighty” who havepersecuted faithful Israel (46:4–8; 62:5). At that point, thefaithful ones (i.e., the holy, righteous, and chosen) will be formedinto a new congregation. In another Jewish text that dates from theend of the first century AD, there is a strong echo of the Danielicson of man. In 4Ezra 13, “something like the figure of aman came up out of the heart of the sea” (v.3a). Unlikein 1Enoch, this figure is a warrior who destroys with firethose who attempt to wage war on him. These texts indicate that atleast two traditions developed and reinterpreted the “one likea son of man” from Dan. 7. He becomes an individual whoexecutes judgment in one tradition, and one who executes destructionin another.
NewTestament
Inthe NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospelsand, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus),is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. The phrase, or a variationof it, also occurs in Acts 7:56; Heb. 2:6; Rev. 1:13; 14:14. Unlikein Daniel or 1Enoch, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with thedefinite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a knownfigure. Because of this and because the Son of Man in 1Enochand 4Ezra have similar functions, many scholars in themid-twentieth century speculated that in first-century Judaism manyJews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as saviorand judge. Others suggested that the significance of the phrase isfound in its Aramaic background, bar ’enash’a, which inother texts means “I,” “man,” “a man,”or “someone.” Despite these alternatives, the OT providesthe most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in theGospels.
TheSon of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories:earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings.Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Sonof Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel theSon of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance inYahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in theGospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesusalso predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raisedagain. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur threetimes (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight ofJesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the littlehorn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man”represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonablethat he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text ofDaniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference toDan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to hisvindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus inMark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicialresponsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33).Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for thereturn of the Son of Man (Luke 12:39–40; 17:22–37;21:34–36).
InActs, the vision that Stephen witnesses confirms that the Son of Manhas indeed been exalted to the right hand of God (Acts 7:56). In theGospel of John, the epithet is used as the object of the verbs “tolift up” and “to glorify,” so that the death ofJesus is a form of exaltation (John 8:28; 12:23; 13:31), whichreflects his current exalted status in early Christian thinking.Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly templefunctioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev.1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud”(14:14–16).
A mineral cluster or rock. Although the terms “rock”and “stone” are occasionally used synonymously, “rock”usually refers to a large geological formation such as a cliff, cave,outcropping, or bedrock, while “stone” is preferred whenthe rock is small enough to be fashioned or handled by human beings.“Stone” can also function as an adjective, referring to amaterial made of stone, or as a verb, referring to the casting ofstones.
Rocksand stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12;Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as asign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a markeror memorial (Gen. 31:46–50), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). Asingle rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen.28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones(Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also beused to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb,such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus(Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).
Stonewas used as a construction material, particularly for the temple(1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15;Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundationand for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26;Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becomingthe cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus(Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf.Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh.8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments wereinscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf.2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai theIsraelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed”stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). Thephrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, sincestone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf.Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); theterm “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to anidol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer.3:9; Ezek. 20:32).
Stoneswere used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown byhand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam.17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone”refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typicallyfunctioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29;Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd(Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).
Thephrases “precious stones” and “costly stones”refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor.3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and fordecoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones onthe high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on hisbreastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12,17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of preciousstones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).
Rocksand stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as arock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common(1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12),hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless(Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone”describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumblingstone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble(Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faithin Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).
The sun was worshiped as a god or goddess in all the nationsaround Israel in OT times, and the polemic against sun worship inDeut. 4:19; 17:3; Jer. 8:2; Job 31:26–28 suggests that sunworship also made inroads into Israel. By way of contrast, the OTattests to the sun’s created status (Gen. 1:16) and counts itas subject to God’s control (e.g., Josh. 10:12–13).
Inthe OT, the sun often is associated with and symbolic of life (e.g.,Eccles. 7:11; cf. Ps. 58:8) or justice (Ps. 19:6; Job 38:13; Mal.4:2; cf. 2Sam. 23:3–4). The darkening of the sun ispresented as a sign of judgment heralding the day of the Lord (Isa.13:10; Ezek. 32:7; Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 8:9; Matt. 24:29; Mark13:24; Rev. 6:12; 9:2), which many associate with the darkness thatfell during the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44).
Prior to his crucifixion, Jesus was subject to a Jewishpretrial examination and a formal trial before the Roman governorPontius Pilate.
Inthe Gospels the primary components of this judicial process are (1)aprivate inquiry made by Annas (John 18:13–24); (2)anexamination before the Sanhedrin (Matt. 26:57–68// Mark14:53–65// Luke 22:54–71); (3)a hearingbefore Pilate (Matt. 27:11–14// Mark 15:2–5//Luke 23:2–5// John 18:29–38); (4)a hearingbefore Herod Antipas (Luke 23:6–16); and (5)Pilate’sverdict (Matt. 27:24–26// Mark 15:15// Luke23:24–25// John 19:16).
Reasonsfor Trial and Historicity
Thereasons for the hastily devised trial are complex and are rooted inthe particular socio-religious environment of Jerusalem at Passover.Jesus’ triumphal entry and his demonstration in the temple wereprovocative actions that implied his messianic authority. The Judeanleadership was fearful that Jesus would create a furor when close toa million Jewish pilgrims were in the environs of Jerusalem atPassover. In this incendiary atmosphere a messianic claim couldprompt riots and revolution and force the Roman authorities tointervene militarily, resulting in a reorganizing of authority amongthe Judean aristocracy (a fear verbalized in John 11:47–53).
Thehistoricity of the trial is questioned on a number of fronts. Wouldthe high priest really convene an emergency nocturnal session of theSanhedrin to do away with Jesus? Perhaps so, if the situation wasdesperate enough! A nocturnal hearing would allow Jesus to be triedby the Roman authorities first thing in the morning and to have Jesustaken care of before most Jerusalemites and pilgrims were awake andaware of what was going on. Another primary objection is that therewere no Christian witnesses present to relay accounts of theproceedings, especially the private hearings. But one can respond bysuggesting that there was probably a desperate curiosity among Jesus’followers and the crowds in general about what actually took place atthe proceedings. Besides the fact that part of the trial took placein public, more information would have been available fromattendants, guards, council members, and even from sympathizers withJesus such as Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea. No one was sworn tosecrecy over what transpired. What seems certain is that Jesus had apretrial hearing with the Sanhedrin and a formal trial before Pilate.
TheJudicial Process
Duringthe judicial processes a number of allegations were raised againstJesus. (1)Being a false prophet who was leading the nationastray (Matt. 27:63–64; Luke 23:2, 14). The background to thisaccusation derives from Deut. 13; 18, concerning false prophets anddiviners who lead the nation into idolatry and make false prophecies.This charge is made explicit in the Babylonian Talmud: “Jesuswas hanged on the eve of Passover.... He is goingforth to be stoned because he practiced sorcery and enticed and ledIsrael astray” (b.Sanh. 43a [cf. 107b]). (2)Speakingagainst the temple (Matt. 26:61; Mark 14:58). What is “false”about the witnesses against Jesus is not that Jesus did not speak andact against the temple (see Matt. 23–24; Mark 13; Luke 21), butthat their testimony did not agree and that they misunderstood Jesusto be saying that he would rebuild another temple of a kind similarto the first. (3)Forbidding the payment of taxes (Luke 23:2).(4)Blasphemy for claiming to be the Son of God (Matt. 26:65;Mark 14:64). (5)Claiming to be the king of the Jews (Mark 15:2;John 18:33).
Accordingto the Fourth Gospel, Jesus initially was led to Annas, at which timehe was briefly interviewed about “his disciples and histeaching” (John 18:19). Annas was the father-in-law of Caiaphasand had been the high priest previously (AD 6–15). High priestevidently was a lifetime office, which is why Annas was stilladdressed as “high priest” (John 18:22–23).
Jesusagain was led out, this time to Caiaphas the current high priest. Atthis point Jesus had a “night trial” before Caiaphas (anact of questionable legality, according to rabbinic law). The basicflow of events includes Caiaphas conducting a cross-examination ofJesus (Matt. 26:59–66; Mark 14:55–64; Luke 22:67–71;John 18:24), Jesus being beaten and abused by his captors (Matt.26:67–68; Mark 14:65; Luke 22:63–65), and then theSanhedrin convening at dawn to ratify the night proceedings againstJesus (Matt. 27:1; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66–71; John 18:28).During the proceedings a number of accusations were brought againstJesus, but the climax was Jesus’ response to the high priestthat he would see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of theMighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven, which combines Dan.7:13 with Ps. 110:1. The notion that Jesus would share the divinethrone with God was deemed blasphemous by the high priest and settledand exceeded the messianic question put to Jesus. The participants ofthe proceedings condemned Jesus as “worthy of death”(Matt. 26:66; Mark 14:64).
Thegathering of the Sanhedrin probably is not a second trial, but morelikely it is for the purpose of ratifying the charges made againstJesus. The decision of the Sanhedrin was that Jesus be handed over toPilate (Matt. 27:2; Mark 15:1; Luke 23:1; John 18:28) for execution,as the Judean leadership did not have the right to exercise the deathpenalty without official approval (John 18:31). Since blasphemy wasnot a capital crime under Roman law, however, the delegationemphasized the political nature of Jesus’ message in order tosecure the death penalty. Before Pilate, Jesus was charged with anumber of offenses, including leading the nation astray, forbiddingpayment of taxes to Caesar, and claiming to be a king (cf. Luke23:2). The main features of this segment of the proceedings are thefollowing: (1)Jesus is charged with making kingly claims;(2)Pilate proposes to release Jesus to the Judean crowd astheir king, but the crowd chooses Barabbas instead; (3)Jesus ishanded over for execution, before which he is mocked and ruthlesslybeaten by the Roman soldiers. In all accounts Pilate is portrayed asfeeble and self-interested, and his apparent sympathy for Jesus wasborn out of his habitual opposition to the designs of the highpriest.
Froma theological perspective, the trial narratives demonstrate that thekingdom of God comes through the kingship of the crucified, and thatJesus is the Suffering Servant of Isa. 53, who was led like a lamb tothe slaughter and pierced for our transgressions.
The NT conception of tribulation is perhaps best summarizedin Paul’s pastoral reminder, “We must go through manyhardships to enter the kingdom of God” (Acts 14:22). The Greekterm used here for “hardship” is thlipsis.
Inthe NT, thlipsis may refer generally to the sufferings andafflictions that occur in the normal course of human living (John16:21; Acts 7:11; 1Cor. 7:28; James 1:27). In its more commonand specific usage, “tribulation” relates directly to theexperience of the people of God as a consequence of their faithfulproclamation of the gospel. Thus, in the parable of the sower,“tribulation or persecution arises on account of the word”(Matt. 13:21; Mark 4:17 ESV).
Oneof the primary aspects of the biblical view of tribulation relates tothe tribulation and suffering of Christ as the pattern for the church(Rev. 1:9). That his followers would suffer tribulation was madeexplicit by Jesus to his followers in the Farewell Discourse (John14–17). There he informs them, “In the world you willhave tribulation” (John 16:33 ESV).
Closelyrelated to the impending tribulation that confronts all believers isthe NT affirmation that the sufferings of Christ serve as the modelfor the tribulation of the people of God. Jesus thus warns thedisciples, “If the world hates you, keep in mind that it hatedme first” (John 15:18; cf. 15:20). Paul continues this conceptin Col. 1:24 (cf. 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10–12; Phil. 3:10; 1Pet.4:13). The tribulation that the people of God experience serves toequip them in a variety of ways. Most significantly, tribulationresults in the transformation of the people of God into the likenessof Christ (Rom. 5:3–5; 2Cor. 4:8–12).
Thebook of Acts records the fulfillment of Jesus’ warning to hisfollowers: it was because of persecution that the church wasscattered (Acts 8:1). Later, Paul notes that he has experiencedtribulation (2Cor. 1:8), as did the church in Thessalonica(1Thess. 1:6) and the recipients of Hebrews (Heb. 10:33). Thereality of “tribulation” is seen in the exhortation ofJohn to the church in Smyrna (Rev. 2:9).
Anotherimportant aspect of the tribulations that await the people of God inthe NT era is the relationship of tribulation to the kingdom of God(cf. Matt. 24:9–14; Rev. 1:9; 7:14). Many hold to the notionthat there will be an intensification of tribulation immediatelyprior to the return of Christ (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:24).
The“great tribulation” of Rev. 7:14 has been interpreted ina variety of ways. Some understand this as a future event limited toseven or three and one-half years. Many others, however, associatethis event with the tribulation, suffering, and affliction of thepeople of God throughout the entire era from the resurrection to thesecond coming. The expression “great tribulation” alludesto Dan. 12:1. The Danielic context incorporates a time of persecutionand suffering among the people of God. The use of “tribulation”in Revelation (Rev. 1:9; 2:9–10, 22; 7:14) corresponds with thepersecution of the people of God. A comparison with Matt. 24:21confirms this conclusion. Therefore, regardless of how one reads the“great tribulation” in Rev. 7:14, as present or futurereality, it appears that this tribulation refers to the suffering ofGod’s people and not to an exemption from it (cf. John 17:15).
Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.
OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).
Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).
Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).
Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).
Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).
NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Mark 13:1-31
is mentioned in the definition.
The designation “Ancient of Days” appears as atitle for the sovereign God seated on his heavenly throne in Daniel’svision of Dan. 7:9, 13, 22. In this symbolic image, the God’swhite clothing symbolizes purity and righteousness, his whitewool-like hair indicates his antiquity, and his fiery throne depictshis awesome power. In Daniel’s vision a second figure, theheavenly “Son of Man” (or, “one like a humanbeing”) comes with the clouds of heaven before the Ancient ofDays and receives authority, glory, sovereign power, the worship ofall nations, and an eternal kingdom (Dan. 7:13–14). In theGospels, Jesus identifies himself as this heavenly Son of Man whowill come with the clouds of heaven (Matt. 24:30; 26:64; Mark 13:26;14:62; Luke 21:27, 69).
Apassage relevant to the Ancient of Days in Dan. 7 is Rev. 1:14–16,where John sees a heavenly figure in whom is combined the features ofthe heavenly Son of Man and the Ancient of Days. Imagerycharacterizing the latter figure (white hair, fiery presence) is nowapplied to Jesus, indicating that the Son of Man is equal to theAncient of Days in glory and authority.
The term “antichrist” (Gk. antichristos) is usedonly four times in the Bible (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John7). John warns his readers that it is already the last hour, and thatjust as they “have heard that the antichrist is coming, evennow many antichrists have come” (1 John 2:18; cf. 4:3).John defines the antichrist as the one who denies that God has comein the flesh in the person of Jesus Christ (1 John 2:22; 4:3;2 John 7).
Theconcept of antichrist-type figures surfaces elsewhere in the NT.Jesus mentions “false messiahs and false prophets” whowill “perform signs and wonders to deceive, if possible, eventhe elect” (Mark 13:22). Paul speaks of a “man oflawlessness” who will “oppose and will exalt himself overeverything that is called God or is worshiped, so that he setshimself up in God’s temple, proclaiming himself to be God”(2 Thess. 2:3–4). In Rev. 13 John describes the mostfamous antichrist figure of all: the “beast coming out of thesea.” Throughout the OT the false-prophet tradition (e.g.,Deut. 13; 18; Jer. 23; Ezek. 12–14) describes religiousindividuals from within the community who attempt to deceive God’speople. Also, there was a common belief in an oppressive ruler fromoutside the community who would persecute the righteous (e.g., Dan.8; 11). By the late first century, when Revelation was written,people would have been familiar with a host of pagan rulers who hadexalted themselves as gods (the king of Babylon [Isa. 14], thepharaoh [Ezek. 29], Antiochus Epiphanes [Dan. 11], and Roman emperorssuch as Caligula, Nero, and Domitian). The evil-ruler tradition andthe false-prophet tradition seem to converge in Rev. 13 as the beastfrom the sea (the antichrist) and the beast from the earth (the falseprophet).
Mostscholars agree that the original beast described in Rev. 13 was aRoman emperor (either Nero or Domitian) who demanded to be worshipedas God. Supported by a second beast, the cult of Caesar worshipenforced by priests throughout the empire, the imperial systemdemanded that Christians choose between two opposing confessions:Caesar is Lord or Jesus is Lord. More specifically, Revelationindicates that the “beast coming out of the sea” isempowered by Satan (vv. 1–2, 4), masquerades as Christ (vv. 1,3, 12, 14), accepts worship as a god (vv. 4, 8), wields extensivepower (vv. 4, 7), blasphemes and slanders God (vv. 1, 5–6), andruthlessly persecutes the saints (v. 7). The “beast comingout of the earth” (emperor cult) is also empowered by Satan(vv. 11, 14), promotes the worship of the first beast (vv. 12,14–15), performs signs and wonders designed to deceive (vv.13–15), and causes those who refused to worship the first beastto be put to death physically (v. 15) or economically (vv.16–17). But in spite of their final effort to take God’splace and conquer God’s people, Christ will return to destroythe antichrist and the false prophet in the lake of fire (17:8;19:19–21).
Anxiety is an inner disposition of restlessness over fearedor uncontrollable outcomes, and it can have debilitating effects (Ps.139:23; Prov. 12:25). Its opposite is not carelessness or apathy butrather confident trust in God (Ps. 37; Isa. 26:3–4). Jesusteaches his disciples to trust God’s daily care as a radicalalternative to anxiety (Matt. 6:25–34; cf. Eccles. 2:22), andJesus’ instruction and preparation free them from anxiety overfuture trials (Matt. 24:25; Mark 13:11). Scripture invites us to movefrom anxiety to peace by means of prayer (Pss. 94:19; 139:23; Phil.4:6; 1 Pet. 5:7).
The book of Daniel contains gripping stories and complexvisions of the end of history. While the former are easy to followand provide clear moral lessons to readers, the latter are quitedifficult to interpret. Set in a time when the people of God wereliving under the thumb of powerful pagan nations, the purpose of thebook is to provide comfort and hope in the knowledge that God is incontrol and, in spite of present difficulties, will provide victoryfor his people.
HistoricalBackground
Authorshipand date.The book does not name an author. The first six chapters are storiesabout Daniel in a foreign court, and the last six chapters narratefour visions received by Daniel.
Thetraditional view holds that the events described in the book tookplace in the period 605–537 BC, and that the book, no matterwhen it was written, faithfully reflects actual events and thevisions that Daniel received. Although the book nowhere insists thathe is the author, it is possible, if not likely, that we are to thinkof Daniel as the author of at least the visions. Indeed, in 12:4 theangel tells him, “Roll up and seal the words of the scroll.”Daniel himself or a later inspired author could have given the bookin its final form.
However,some scholars reject the idea that the book accurately reflectsevents of the period in question. They point to historical problemssuch as questions concerning the identity of Darius the Mede as wellas the specificity of the prophecies particularly and argue that thebook must have been written by an anonymous person after thepredicted events. Indeed, they point to what they believe is anactual prophecy at the end of the book (11:40–45) that did nottake place to suggest that the book was written in the mid-160sBC.
Thosewho believe that God could provide Daniel with a glimpse of thefuture do not have a problem with the precision of the description offuture events. Further, 11:40–45 may be a picture of theantichrist in the far-distant future. It seems best to side with thetraditional understanding of the book of Daniel as having beenwritten early and reflecting an accurate depiction of Daniel’slife.
AncientNear Eastern historical context.The book of Daniel begins with a Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in thethird year of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, dated to 605 BC.Nebuchadnezzar, who according to Babylonian sources had just becomeking of Babylon, demands tokens of Judean submission: vessels fromthe temple and hostages from the royal family and nobility, includingDaniel and three friends. Since 626 BC the Babylonians have been onthe uprise, displacing Assyria as the superpower of the day. Theaction of Dan. 1–4 takes place in Babylon during the reign ofthe powerful empire builder Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel lives longer thanthe king, and Dan. 5 is set during the rule of a man named“Belshazzar.” The story concerns the end of theBabylonian Empire, and it was initially puzzling that Babyloniansources rediscovered beginning in the nineteenth century AD namedNabonidus as the last king of Babylon rather than Belshazzar.However, texts discovered more recently have resolved the problem,demonstrating that Belshazzar (known in the Babylonian texts asBel-shar-usur) was the son of Nabonidus and his coregent: Belshazzarruled in the city of Babylon while Nabonidus ruled from an oasis(Teima) in what is today Saudi Arabia. The visions recorded in Dan.7–8 are dated to the time of this Belshazzar.
Danieleven survived the fall of the Babylonian Empire and found a place ofimportance in the Persian Empire (Dan. 6), which succeeded it. Thefirst ruler of this Persian Empire was Cyrus, though Dan. 6 speaks ofa king named “Darius.” Some believe this is a historicalmistake because there was a King Darius who ruled some years afterCyrus, but it is likely that “Darius” is either anothername for Cyrus or perhaps a subruler in charge of Babylon. Thevisions found in Dan. 9–12 are dated to the time ofDarius/Cyrus.
Danielalmost certainly died during the reign of Darius/Cyrus, but hisprophetic vision extended beyond even the Persian Empire, which endedwith the conquest by the Greek Alexander the Great in 333BC.
Text.An interesting feature of the original text of Daniel is that it iswritten in two languages. Daniel 1:1–2:4a; 8:1–12:13 isin Hebrew, while Dan. 2:4b–7:28 is in Aramaic. This extensiveuse of two languages is unique in a single biblical book. Althoughthe Aramaic begins when the text announces that the astrologersanswered the king in Aramaic, no persuasive reason has been offeredfor why the text continues in Aramaic until the end of chapter7.
Theevidence from the eight partial and fragmentary manuscripts of Danielfrom the DSS supports the antiquity and authenticity of the text thatis used to translate the book into modern languages, includingEnglish. It also supports the use of two languages in the book.
EarlyGreek versions of Daniel have additions that are found in modernBibles that include the Apocrypha. The first of these is the Prayerof Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men, which is found afterDan. 3:23. The story of Susanna appears in some Greek manuscriptsbefore Dan. 1 and in others after Dan. 12. Bel and the Dragonconcludes the book.
LiteraryConsiderations and Outline
Thereare two major parts of the book. The first half (Dan. 1–6) iscomposed of six stories of Daniel in a foreign court, and the secondhalf (Dan. 7–12) is composed of four apocalyptic visions. Amore detailed outline of the book is as follows:
I.Daniel in a Foreign Court (1:1–6:28)
A.Daniel and his friends in the Babylonian court (1:1–21)
B.God’s wisdom versus Babylonian wisdom (2:1–49)
C.God saves the three friends from the fiery furnace (3:1–30)
D.Nebuchadnezzar’s pride takes a fall (4:1–37)
E.Writing on the wall (5:1–31)
F.Daniel in the lions’ den (6:1–28)
II.Four Visions (7:1–12:13)
A.The four beasts and the one like a son of man (7:1–28)
B.The ram and the goat (8:1–27)
C.The seventy weeks (9:1–27)
D.The scope and end of history (10:1–12:13)
Thestories of the first six chapters may be identified as courtnarratives that focus on Daniel and the three friends and theirinteractions with the rulers. Such interaction often brings them intoconflict with the Babylonian wise men and other officials. Of course,Daniel and his friends are successful in the various court contestsand conflicts because their God is with them.
Thevisions of the last six chapters have been called “apocalyptic.”Apocalyptic literature has a distinct form from even the type ofprophecy that we read in a book such as Jeremiah (see Apocalyptic).In Jeremiah, God gives a message to the prophet, who is told tocommunicate with the people so that they might change their behaviorand thus avoid punishment. God never speaks to Daniel. He has avision, and an angel interprets the vision for him. He is told not topreach the message of the vision. The purpose of such visions is notto elicit repentance but rather to assure God’s faithful peoplethat, although they are presently being oppressed, God is with themand will win the victory in the end.
Apocalypticl*terature features an intense use of striking images. Beasts ariseout of a sea, a humanlike figure rides a cloud chariot, and a goatbutts heads with a ram. Although this imagery strikes modern readersas odd, it communicated clearly to its ancient audience, which knewthat the sea and its monsters represented evil and chaos, the cloudrider was God on his storm chariot, and the ram represented Persiaand the goat Greece.
TheologicalMessage
Thoughvaried in genre with six stories and four visions, the basic messageof the book of Daniel is clear and repeated in each: in spite ofpresent difficulties, God is in control and will have the victory.The book intends to instill in its readers a sense of calmness in themidst of crisis: although persecuted and/or living in a culture toxicto their faith, not only can they survive but they can thrive.
Daniel1 illustrates this theme among the stories. Young Daniel and hisfriends are forced to go into exile in Babylon. Though faithful, theyare subjected to the pagan curriculum of the court to become wisem*n. Such study would have included astrology and other forms ofdivination. Furthermore, they are required to eat a diet that willassure that they become robust. But by refusing to eat the rich foodprescribed by the king and consuming only vegetables and water, theygive God room to work. Thus, when later they are proclaimed to be“better nourished” than those who eat the king’sdiet, they know that it is not because of the king’s diet butbecause of God. They are also more learned than others in the court.Daniel 2 demonstrates how their exceptional wisdom is not the resultof their Babylonian education, but because of God’s wisdom. Soin spite of their present situation, they not only survive but alsothrive, as evidenced by their promotions in the king’s court.
Daniel7 illustrates this important theme among the apocalyptic visions. Thevision begins with the description of hybrid beasts that arise fromthe sea. They are evil kingdoms that oppress the people of God.However, the vision looks beyond the present to the arrival of the“one like a son of man” on his cloud chariot, who willlead the saints of the Most High God in a victorious battle againstthese forces of evil.
NewTestament Connections
Daniel’svisions look to the far future when God will appear and bring historyto a close with a tremendous victory over the forces of evil. Notsurprisingly, Daniel’s imagery permeates the apocalypticmaterials in the NT that speak of the second coming of Jesus Christ.For instance, in the book of Revelation evil is imaged as a seamonster (Rev. 13) that reminds the reader of the four sea beasts ofDan. 7. Jesus, the one who defeats this epitome of evil, is called“Son of Man” in the NT and is pictured as appearing on acloud at the end of time (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27; cf.Rev. 1:7).
The Roman general who conquered Jerusalem in AD 70 and laterreigned as emperor of the Roman Empire (r. AD 79–81). Hisfather, Vespasian, preceded him as emperor (r. AD 69–79), whilehis brother Domitian succeeded him in the role (r. AD 81–96).These three rulers are commonly referred to as the Flavian dynasty, adesignation deriving from their family name, “Flavius.”Titus distinguished himself relatively early in life through hismilitary service in Germany and Britain. Roman historians tell thestory of him saving the life of his father during this period. Hisfirst wife died soon after the marriage, and Titus quickly remarried,though this second marriage was also brief, ending in divorce.
BothTitus and his father were military commanders during the Romancampaign to put down the revolts in Judea, beginning in approximatelyAD 66. Vespasian was the supreme commander in the conflict, but whenhe departed for Rome in AD 69 to become emperor, Titus filled hisfather’s role as military leader in the region. In the springof AD 70, Titus began an attack on Jerusalem, and within a few monthshis forces had taken complete control of the city, destroying thetemple in the process. Aspects of this incident are reflected in thespeech of Jesus known as the Olivet Discourse (Matt. 24; Mark 13;Luke 21). As emperor, Titus generally was well respected by hiscontemporaries for his accomplishments, and Roman historians lookedupon his brief reign with favor.
Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.
OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).
Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).
Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).
Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).
Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).
NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).
Evangelism is the proclamation of the “evangel”(Gk. euangelion), the good news, of Jesus Christ. The content of theevangel includes Jesus’ birth, which was announced as good newsto Zechariah by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:19) and by the angels tothe shepherds (Luke 2:10). The good news speaks of the reality ofJesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:18), is described as a message ofgrace (Acts 20:24) and reconciliation to God through the sacrificedbody of Christ (Col. 1:22–23), and includes the expectation ofa day of divine judgment (Rom. 2:16). Paul preached the gospel (fromOld English gōdspel, “good news”) message, which heclaimed had its origin with God, not humans (Gal. 1:11–12). Hesummarizes this message in 1Cor. 15:3b–5: “thatChrist died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he wasburied, that he was raised on the third day according to theScriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve.”The introduction to the Gospel of Mark (1:1) may indicate that thiswritten gospel could serve evangelistic purposes.
Evangelisticefforts in the New Testament.Numerous figures throughout the NT participated in evangelisticendeavors. John the Baptist’s preaching about the comingMessiah is described as evangelism (Luke 3:18). Evangelism was acharacteristic activity of Jesus’ own ministry (Matt. 4:23;9:35; Mark 1:14; Luke 20:1), which focused on proclaiming the adventof the kingdom of God (Luke 4:43; 8:1) and at times was targetedtoward the poor (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22). Jesus commanded thosewho follow him to engage in evangelism. He sent out the twelveapostles for evangelistic purposes (Luke 9:2), and he issued theGreat Commission to this end (Matt. 28:18–20).
Themissionary enterprise recorded in Acts demonstrates the efforts ofthe earliest Christians to spread the gospel. The apostles inJerusalem (Acts 5:42) proclaimed the gospel in spite of greatopposition and persecution, and believers who were scattered outsideJerusalem because of persecution spread the gospel in new locales(8:4). Philip evangelized Samaritans and an Ethiopian (8:12, 35). Theministry of Paul and Barnabas is characterized as preaching the goodnews (14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18). Philip, one of the sevenchosen to distribute food (6:5), was given the name “theEvangelist” (21:8). Timothy, additionally, is said to be Paul’sfellow worker in evangelism (1Thess. 3:2; cf. 2Tim. 4:5).
Evangelismwas a central part of Paul’s ministry (Rom. 1:9; 1Cor.1:17; 15:1–2; Eph. 6:19; 1Thess. 2:2, 9). He indicated anexplicit interest in sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Rom. 15:16;Gal. 1:16; 2:7; Eph. 3:8) and with those who had never heard it (Rom.15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16), and he expressed a desire to preach the gospelat Rome (Rom. 1:15). Paul wrote of the necessity of evangelism inorder for people to be saved (Rom. 10:15), and he preached the gospelmessage free of charge (1Cor. 9:16, 18; 2Cor. 11:7). Helisted the role of the evangelist in the church along with apostles,prophets, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).
Goaland methods of evangelism.Evangelism’s goal is to spread the gospel across ethnic andreligious boundaries until it reaches all nations (Mark 13:10; Col.1:23). To this end, Acts details an intentional effort by theearliest Christians to share the gospel with those who came from bothJewish and non-Jewish backgrounds. Acts 8:25 records Peter and John’sevangelistic efforts in Samaritan villages, and Acts 15:7 identifiesPeter as an evangelist to Gentiles. An outreach specifically toGentiles is chronicled in Acts 11:20, and Paul’s intentionalprogram of traveling from city to city further contributes to thisgoal (Rom. 15:19).
Theevangelists recorded in the NT demonstrate a range of methods andapproaches to sharing the good news. They often began with a point ofcontact from the religious worldview of their audience. For instance,Philip used Scripture as a starting point in speaking with anindividual who was familiar with some portion of it (Acts 8:35).Similarly, when addressing Jews, Paul preached Jesus as thefulfillment of various OT Scriptures (Acts 13:32–41), but whenpreaching the gospel to the Greeks in Athens, he acknowledged theirreligiosity and their previous worship of one called “anunknown God” (17:22–23). Evangelists sought opportunitiesto gain an audience, and Paul even took advantage of an illness tostay with the Galatians and share the gospel with them (Gal. 4:13).Finally, much of the evangelistic work in the early church wascoupled with miraculous signs and wonders, which served toauthenticate the message being proclaimed (Rom. 15:19; 1Thess.1:5).
The desire to harmonize the differences between the canonicalGospels can be traced back to the second century, when Tatian (asecond-century apologist) combined the four Gospels into one documentknown as the Diatessaron (Greek for “out of four”). Thiscombined Gospel was used in the Syrian churches in the third andfourth centuries until it was replaced by the four canonical Gospelsin the fifth century.
MaterialCommon to More than One Gospel
Allfour Gospels portray Jesus as leading a group of disciples,preaching, healing, performing miracles, being crucified, and beingraised from the dead. Matthew was written for a Jewish or JewishChristian audience, reminding them that Jesus fulfills the HebrewScriptures. Mark was written for a Gentile audience, focusing more onnarrative than on teaching and portraying Jesus as a man ofmiraculous, powerful action. Luke shows Jesus as one who isespecially concerned for the poor and those on the fringes ofsociety. John explains that Jesus, the eternal Word of God, is not asecond god, but rather the one true God, sent by the Father to renewIsrael.
Peoplewho are familiar with the content of the Gospel stories often confusethe information from different accounts. For example, there isactually no single story in the Bible about a “rich youngruler”: only Matthew describes the man as young (Matt. 19:20),and only Luke mentions that the man was a ruler (Luke 18:18).
Somematerial is found in all four Gospels, including information aboutJohn the Baptist, the miracle of the feeding of the five thousand,and the story of the crucifixion and the resurrection (although theindividual accounts of the resurrection differ). Some materialappears in three Gospels, especially in Matthew, Mark, and Luke.These three Gospels have therefore been labeled the “SynopticGospels” (syn= together, optic= view). Storiesfound in all three Synoptic Gospels include the transfiguration(Matt. 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36); thehealing of Jairus’s daughter and of a woman with a flow ofblood (Matt. 9:18–26; Mark 5:21–43; Luke 8:41–56);and the rich young ruler (Matt. 19:16–30; Mark 10:17–31;Luke 18:18–30). The details do not agree in every respect ineach account, but clearly they represent the same story and exhibitlinguistic dependence on the same source(s).
Asignificant amount of material appears in two of the four canonicalGospels. Matthew and Mark have the story of a Syrophoenician woman(Matt. 15:21–28; Mark 7:24–30), and both Mark and Luketell the story of a widow’s offering to the temple treasury(Mark 12:41–44; Luke 21:1–4). The most significant bodyof teachings and sayings found in two Gospels is the material sharedby Matthew and Luke. Each of the Gospels contains material that doesnot appear in any other Gospel. Mark has the smallest amount of suchmaterial, John the largest.
TheGospel of John and the Synoptic Gospels
Basedon a study of the material common to more than one Gospel, and thematerial unique to one Gospel, John’s Gospel usually is seen asdistinct from the other three. The most likely explanation for thisis that John was written later, with knowledge of the other Gospels,and therefore the author saw no need to repeat most of this material(except what was central to his purposes). Some of the distinctivefeatures of John’s Gospel are the use of terminology such as“love,” “light,” “life,” “truth,”“abide,” “knowledge,” “world,”and the “I am” statements. Furthermore, certain Synopticterms are either rare or absent—for example, “kingdom,”“demons,” “power,” “pity,”“gospel,” “preach,” “repent,”“parable,” “tax collector.” More so than theSynoptics, John is written from the vantage point of the resurrectionand with the aid of hindsight as well as the Spirit. This is why theauthor of John’s Gospel does not refrain from adding commentaryto Jesus’ words (e.g., 2:21–22; 7:39; 11:51–52;12:16).
TheSynoptic Gospels are more interrelated. In passages that appear inthese three Gospels, there is often very close verbal agreementbetween them (e.g., the healing of the leper [Matt. 8:2; Mark1:40–44; Luke 5:12–14]; the question of Jesus’authority [Matt. 21:23–27; Mark 11:27–33; Luke 20:1–8]),implying a common source. In many sections that are found in allthree Synoptic Gospels, two agree extensively and the third diverges(e.g., Matt. 20:24–28 and Mark 10:41–45 against Luke22:24–27). When two Gospels agree and one disagrees, Matthewand Mark often agree against Luke, and Luke and Mark often agreeagainst Matthew; but Matthew and Luke do not often agree against Markand never do so in regard to the order of material. At other points,the Gospel accounts diverge quite significantly when referring to thesame events. The infancy narratives in Matthew are quite differentfrom those in Luke. The two accounts of the parable of the weddingbanquet (Matt. 22:2–14; Luke 14:16–24) differ sosignificantly that it is difficult to decide whether they are twoversions of the same parable or two different stories. Reports on theresurrection diverge across all four Gospels.
Itis possible that these similarities and differences can be tracedback to the oral presentation of the gospel. Apostolic preachingwould have formed itself into set ways of retelling the events ofJesus’ ministry through repetition. These accounts may havebeen told originally in Aramaic before being translated into Greek tofacilitate the Gentile mission. The authors of Matthew, Mark, andLuke could have been drawing from this common tradition in writingtheir Gospels. There is probably a degree of truth to this theory,but it cannot explain all the data. The theory does not account forsimilarities and differences in the order of events, nor does itexplain why Matthew and Luke always return to Mark’s orderafter they deviate from it. A common oral tradition does notadequately explain similar editorial comments (e.g., cf. Matt. 24:15with Mark 13:14), which suggest a common written source.
Somehave argued that the apostles or others wrote records of the words ofJesus (memorabilia), which were collected and written down topically,from which the Synoptic Gospels were composed. As the church grewnumerically and geographically, various collections of thesememorabilia were made. Again, this is not beyond the realm ofpossibility; however, working against this theory is the completeabsence of any reference to such records. Furthermore, as with theoral theory, it does not explain agreement in the order of material.It does, however, highlight the probability that the evangelists wereusing written sources.
MarkanPriority and Q
Onthe assumption that the writers of the Synoptic Gospels employed awritten source(s), several scholars have tried to reconstruct thisoriginal written Gospel from the material in the Synoptic Gospels.This document, which scholars call the Urevangelium (German for“original Gospel”), ended up bearing very closesimilarities with the Gospel of Mark. This is not surprising, sincenearly all of Mark is repeated in Matthew and Luke. This led to thebelief that Mark was the most primitive Synoptic Gospel, and that itwas a common source for Matthew and Luke.
Thisbelief in Markan priority, which has gained increasing popularitysince the nineteenth century, has helped explain the similaritiesamong the Synoptic Gospels. Traditionally, Matthew was thought to bethe first Gospel to be written, hence the order of the Gospels in ourNT. This belief in Matthean priority was upheld by several earlychurch writers such as Augustine, who saw Mark as an abridgement ofMatthew (Cons. 1.2). Augustine may have been more influenced by thetraditional ordering of the Gospels than by an analysis of theGospels themselves. Mark’s Gospel does not read like anabridgement; it is the shortest Gospel, but individual sections of ittypically are longer and more detailed than in Matthew.
Thereare many reasons why the priority of Mark is probable. It is theshortest Gospel, containing 661 verses, whereas Matthew contains1,068 and Luke contains 1,149. When their content is compared,97.2percent of Mark is paralleled in Matthew, and 88.4percentof Mark is paralleled in Luke. It is easier to understand Matthew andLuke as using Mark and choosing to add additional material to it thanto think of Mark as using Matthew, Luke, or both and deciding to omitmaterial such as the birth narratives and the Sermon on the Mount.Mark has simpler Greek, which includes an extensive use of thepresent tense, redundancies (e.g., Mark 1:32: “that eveningafter sunset”; cf. Matt. 8:16: “when evening came”;Luke 4:40: “at sunset”), and various colloquialisms(e.g., the word for “mat” in Mark 2:4). Mark alone amongthe Gospels uses Aramaic terms such as abba (14:36), talitha koum(5:41), and ephphatha (7:34), although Matthew also mentions Eloi,Eloi, lama sabachthani (Matt. 27:46; Mark 15:34). It is easier to seehow Luke and Matthew would have “improved” Mark than thereverse.
Ifwe accept the priority of Mark, and Luke and Matthew’sdependence upon it, there are still the sections of Matthew and Lukethat bear strong similarities with each other. From an analysis ofthe text of Matthew and Luke, it appears that these two evangelistsdid not know each other’s works. If one knew of the other’swork, why the divergence in some material such as the birthnarratives? Alongside this, however, there are close similarities inother material: Matthew has 4,290 words that have parallels in Lukebut not in Mark, and Luke has 3,559 words that have parallels inMatthew but not in Mark. The solution appears to be that Matthew andLuke were dealing with some material that they held in common, andthat each of them also had other material that he drew onindependently. The material held in common is commonly called “Q”(from the German word Quelle, meaning “source”); thematerial unique to Matthew is called “M” and that whichis unique to Luke, “L.” Whether Q was a document isunknown, although it is more likely to be a collection of sources, asis also the case with MandL.
Manyscholars argue that Q was a written rather than an oral source, basedon the exact word parallels in the Greek text (e.g., Matt. 6:24 andLuke 16:13, where 27 of the 28 words are exactly the same). Thepresence of doublets (double accounts of the same incident) inMatthew and Luke may show dependence by the respective evangelists onboth a Markan and a Q source (e.g., Luke 8:16; cf. Mark 4:21; Luke11:33; cf. Matt. 5:15). Some scholars have tried to explain thesources geographically: Markan material originated in Rome, Qmaterial in Antioch, M in Jerusalem, and L in Caesarea, but suchspeculations are far from proven.
Summary
Withinall of this, in seeking to understand the harmony of the Gospels, itis important to be aware of what we do not know. Many of thesolutions focus on a history behind the text to which we do not haveaccess. Modern literary critics have tended to focus more on the textit*elf than its prehistory. There is merit in this because it affirmsthe priority of the text and allows the reader to understand how apart of the text functions within the larger literary unit. It alsoallows the evangelists to be more than collectors of sources, to havewritten distinctive theological accounts. Their different emphasesmay explain some of the differences between the Gospels. Thisapproach, however, also has its dangers. Some who focus on the textover its original intent distance the text from the author’spurpose and therefore open the door for subjective interpretationsthat deny the difference between a correct and an incorrect readingof the text. It also raises the danger of reading an ancient textthrough modern eyes, losing sight of the original context.
Thechurch has been well served by four Gospel traditions. The fact thatesteem for the text has stopped overharmonization has been of greatbenefit, as the readers of the Gospels can appreciate various huesand emphases between the different accounts of the ministry of Jesus.
Temples have always been the domain and house of the godsthroughout the ancient Near East. As the abode of the God of Israel,the Jerusalem temple served the same purpose. The temple played animportant role in the social, religious, and political life ofancient Israel. No archaeological remains of the actual templebuilding exist today; nevertheless, the temple has dominated biblicalscholarship. The Jerusalem temple was originally built by Solomon in953 BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 586BC. After the exile, the temple was rebuilt and then rededicated byZerubbabel in 515 BC (Ezra). Herod the Great significantly expandedand changed the temple, but it was eventually destroyed by the Romansunder the direction of Titus in AD70.
Thebiblical text refers to the temple in several ways: temple, house ofGod/Yahweh, and sanctuary/shrine. These terms all refer to thedwelling or house of God and an area of sacredness. The sources forinformation on the temple are biblical texts, Josephus, and theMishnah (tractate Middot). The most detailed accounts of theconstruction of the Solomonic temple are found in 1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 2–4. In addition to these major sections, thereare several references to building activities and repairs to thetemple throughout the OT. Another major text is Ezek. 40, but it isdebated whether this represents the actual temple or an ideal temple.There are several references in the NT that directly or indirectlyrefer to functions and specific components of the Temple Mountcomplex.
ArchaeologicalInvestigation
Thelocation of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem has been undisputed.Current scholarly opinion locates the temple on the spot of thecurrent Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock. Today the largerenclosed area is referred to as the harem esh-sharif (the noblesanctuary). Explorers in the nineteenth century did not attemptarchaeological research of the temple itself, although variousexplorations focused on recording visible features and conductingsoundings along the sides of the Temple Mount. Even after theunification of Jerusalem in 1967, with three major excavations in thecity, no archaeological investigation of the temple was conducted.Due to the political and religious variables associated with theMuslim holy sites, there are no foreseeable archaeologicalinvestigations. A recent renovation of the Mosque of Omar, located onthe southern end of the Temple Mount, removed truckloads of earth.Unfortunately, there was no archaeological supervision of the projectand no archaeological excavations of the site were conducted.
Inspite of the limited archaeological excavations, several popularaccounts of alternate locations of the temple have been proposed.Most of these place the temple somewhere other than the Dome of theRock, but none of these proposals has garnered scholarly support torival the current location.
FirstTemple: Temple of Solomon
Throughoutthe ancient Near East, temples served as monumental edifices thatprovided divine legitimacy for the king or dynasty. While templesshould be considered part of the religious sphere of society, theirconstruction, maintenance, and associated activities are interlinkedwith the political sphere. The construction of the temple inJerusalem is also linked to state formation by the Israelites. TheSolomonic temple ushered in a new period of religious activity amongthe ancient Israelites. Previously, Israel had worshiped at variousshrines and sanctuaries, and its central religious practice wasassociated with the tabernacle. With the establishment of themonarchy, dynastic kingship and centralized authority were created.Although the biblical text credits Solomon as the Israelite king whobuilt the temple, the project was initiated under David. David unitedthe Israelite tribes, captured Jerusalem and made it the capital ofthe kingdom, and built a royal palace. He made Jerusalem thepolitical capital but also the religious center when he brought theholy ark, the visible symbol of Yahweh’s presence, to Jerusalem(2Sam. 5–6). David intended to build Yahweh a permanentdwelling (2Sam. 7:2).
Location.Thebiblical text preserves multiple traditions and accounts of thelocation and acquisition of land for the temple. In the ancient worldthe city temple was commonly located on the acropolis (highest point)of the city. The temple is located on the highest point of a ridgewhere the OT city of Jerusalem is located (Jebusite city, later theCity of David). There are two accounts of the purchase of the land:the threshing floors of Araunah (2Sam. 24:18–25) and ofOrnan (1Chron. 21:15–30; 2Chron. 3:1 [here the NIVsupplies “Araunah,” but see, e.g., the NET, NASB, ESV]).It is possible that Araunah and Ornan were kin, but most likely theyare the same person, with Samuel and Chronicles using variant names.However, the two accounts disagree further on the amount paid for theland: fifty silver shekels (2Sam. 24:24) and six hundredshekels of gold (1Chron. 21:25). One theory explains thisdiscrepancy as arising from two separate transactions. First, Davidpurchased the threshing floor to build an altar to Yahweh, and helater purchased the whole mountain to build a temple. Later traditionassociates the hill where David built an altar with the locationwhere earlier Abraham built an altar to sacrifice Isaac (MountMoriah).
Constructionand dimensions.Solomon started to build during the fourth year of his reign(2Chron. 3:1), and construction lasted for seven years. Theplan of the temple was revealed to Solomon during a night in thesanctuary at Gibeon (2Chron. 1:7–13). The king obtainedbuilding materials, specifically cedar from Lebanon (2Chron.2:3–10), and construction and design expertise from Phoenicianartisans (1Kings 7:13–14, 45). The Solomonic templeconsisted of a tripartite plan similar to other temples inSyro-Palestine during this period. There are two accounts for theconstruction and dedication of the first temple (1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 3–7). Both accounts offer similar descriptionsbut there are some differences in measurements. Most scholars accountfor these differences by viewing the dimensions in the book ofChronicles as reflecting the temple measurements after Hezekiah’srepair and rebuilding projects.
Thebasic plan was a rectangle, 70 cubits long (120ft. 7in.)and 20 cubits wide (34ft. 5in.) on a straight axis facingeast; the height was 30 cubits (51ft. 7in.). Thesemeasurements refer to the inside dimensions (1cubit=20.67 in.). The three distinct architectural units formed threedistinct rooms where various functions were performed and alsoreflected levels of holiness. The three units were the ’ulam(“porch” or “vestibule”), the hekal (“cella”or “nave”), and the debir (the innermost sanctuary, themost holy place). In the biblical accounts the whole building iscalled the “house [bayit] of the Lord,” and the word“temple” is used for the hekal. There was a three-storystructure built around the sides and back of the temple (see below).
Theporch was 10 cubits (17ft. 2in.) by 20 cubits (34ft.5in.). The account in Kings does not provide its height; theaccount in Chronicles gives the height as 120 cubits. In itsdescription and measurements in the biblical text, the porch isconsidered separate from the temple (bayit, house). The porchcontained two pillars of bronze: yakin (“he will establish”)on the right side and bo’az (“in strength”) on theleft (see Boaz; Jakin). The pillars were bronze, 18 cubits (35 cubitsin Chronicles) in height, with elaborate double capitals. The bottomcapital was 5 cubits, round in shape, and surrounded by nets withpomegranates. Above this was another capital, 4 cubits high, shapedlike a lily.
Thehekal was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide and was the only partwith windows (1Kings 6:4). The debir was a cube, 20 cubits perside. The debir is also called the “holy of holies.” Thedifference in height (10 cubits shorter than the hekal )is due to the rise in the bedrock. This measurement is confirmedtoday in the interior of the Dome of the Rock.
Thewalls of the house (hekal and debir) were built of whole stonesdressed in the quarry, as “no hammer, chisel or any other irontool was heard at the temple site while it was being built”(1Kings 6:7). The roof was made of cedar wood (1Kings6:10), with crossbeams and intersecting boards. The stone walls werecovered from ground to ceiling with boards of cedar wood, and thefloor was made of cypress wood, covered with gold (1Kings6:30). The wood had carved engravings of cherubim, palm trees, andopen flowers. The hekal and the debir were separated by a partitionmade of olive wood.
Thethree-story structure surrounding the temple was constructed of cedarwood. Each story was 5 cubits. The width of the first floor was 5cubits, the middle 6 cubits, and the top 7 cubits. This structure wasentered from the right side of the temple, and the floors wereconnected by openings with ladders. This structure formed chambersand storage for the activities of the priests.
Infront of the temple was a courtyard surrounded by a wall. Inside thecourtyard was a great bronze basin (known as “the Sea”).This basin rested on the backs of twelve bronze oxen. Ten smallerbasins in groups of five were set on elaborate wheeled stands. Alarge altar also was located in this courtyard.
Inthe holy of holies stood two large cherubim of olive wood coveredwith gold. They were 10 cubits in height, with a wingspan of 10cubits. These cherubim stood over the ark of the covenant. In thehekal were the golden altar, the golden table, and ten lampstands.
History.FromSolomon to Zedekiah, the temple was used for political and religiouspower shifts. Kings of Israel raided the temple treasury to pay offinvaders, closed the temple, or placed idols in the temple in periodsof apostasy. During periods of reform they repaired and rebuilt thetemple and its furnishings.
UnderRehoboam’s reign, Shishak king of Egypt ransacked the templeand removed all its treasures (1Kings 14:25–28; 2Chron.12:9). Asa and his father, Abijah, added to the treasure of thetemple with silver, gold, and other vessels (2Chron. 15:18) butused these to pay Ben-Hadad of Syria to help him fight Baasha king ofIsrael (16:2–3). Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (2Chron. 17)ruled during a time of prosperity and reform. It was under his rulethat the court in front of the temple probably was enlarged (20:5).The sons of Athaliah broke into the temple and worshiped Baal. Duringthe reign of Amaziah the temple was plundered by Jehoash king ofIsrael (2Chron. 25). Uzziah ruled for a long period ofprosperity (787–736 BC) but attempted to burn incense on thealtar in the hekal, a ritual kept solely for the priests. A laterking, Jotham, built the Upper Gate of the house of Yahweh (2Kings15:35; 2Chron. 27:3). Jotham’s son Ahaz took the silverand gold from the temple and sent it as a present to the king ofAssyria. He moved and changed various vessels of the temple and shutit* doors (2Chron. 28:24).
Hezekiahson of Ahaz ruled during a time of prosperity and revival. Hereopened the temple doors (2Chron. 29), cleaned out the temple,and created a 500-cubit-square mount around the temple. Hezekiahconducted many building projects in Jerusalem and reforms throughoutthe land. He also “stripped off the gold with which he hadcovered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the Lord” topay a ransom to Sennacherib king of Assyria (2Kings 18:16). Dueto his building activities, most scholars attribute major changes tothe temple to Hezekiah’s reign. The differences in the templedescriptions in Kings and Chronicles probably reflect two differentperiods of history concerning the temple (e.g., Kings represents thetemple during the period of Solomon, while Chronicles represents thechanges to the temple by Hezekiah). Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son,undid the work of his father by building altars in the temple.
Thelast resurgence of the temple in the life of the people of Israel wasunder Josiah. He instigated a reform throughout the land and acleansing of the temple. Hilkiah the high priest found a copy of the“Book of the Law” (2Kings 22:8). After a reading ofthe law in the public square, a collection was taken from the peopleto be given to workers for temple repair. The Babylonians took someof the temple treasure (2Chron. 36:7) under the rule ofJehoiakim. The last two kings of Judah, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, alsolost temple treasure to Babylon, and eventually the temple wasdestroyed during the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2Chron.36).
SecondTemple: Zerubbabel and the Temple of Herod the Great
Zerubbabel’stemple.Solomon’s temple was rebuilt by the Jews who returned fromexile under the decree of the Persian king Darius (Ezra 6:1–5).The temple was built under the direction of the governor Zerubbabelwith the support of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:13–18)and was dedicated in 515 BC. This would have been a poorer temple dueto the poverty of the inhabitants of Judah. During the Hasmoneanperiod (152–37 BC) a platform and a fortress were constructed.Not much is known about the temple during this period. It would begreatly eclipsed by the work of Herod the Great.
Templeof Herod the Great.Herod invested heavily in building projects throughout his kingdom.He was keen on bringing Hellenistic culture to the Jews but also onupholding traditional Jewish religious practices, especially when itcame to the temple. Just as the first temple mimicked the religiousarchitecture of the ancient Near East, the second temple reflectedthe massive sacred architecture of the classical world. John 2:20indicates that thus far it had taken forty-six years (beyond Herod’slife) to build. Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple,but he was able to make additions to the outside, alter its outerfurnishings, and expand the compound and platform to match thegrandeur of Greco-Roman temples. Today scholars refer to all thesebuildings and the temple as the Temple Mount complex.
Herodexpanded the space of the Temple Mount by building a “box”around the mountain. This was a massive wall with varying height dueto the topography. This wall is still visible today, especially thecurrent religious site of the Western Wall. This construction allowedfor a level platform with various buildings and plazas on the top.The leveling was done by filling in the gaps and buildingsubterranean arches in low areas. One of these areas is located onthe southeast corner (the underground arched supports are erroneouslycalled “Solomon’s Stables” today). The whole areawas surrounded by a colonnaded portico (Solomon’s Colonnade[John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12]). On the northwest corner was theAntonia Fortress (Acts 21:35), and the southern end of the complexcontained the Royal Stoa, a basilica-style building (four rows offorty columns) that housed the Sanhedrin and had other religious andpolitical functions (Luke 22:66).
Thiscomplex became the religious and political center of the city ofJerusalem, and Herod built many auxiliary components. Severalentrances and bridges from the Upper City were built. The publicentered the complex from the south. A southern complex consisting ofmonumental stairs (210 feet wide) and entrance and exit gates (Doubleand Triple Gates) took pedestrians from the outside up throughunderground tunnels to the top of the temple compound. These stairsbecame an area for public forums. In addition, several shops (Mark11:15–17) were built around the complex, as well as a largebathhouse for ritual cleansing. In order to facilitate the manysacrifices, Herod built a complex hydrologic system that broughtwater into the city. This was accomplished by various aqueducts andstorage pools. The Temple Mount had many cisterns and a new pool onthe northeast end of the Temple Mount complex, the Pool of Israel.Although Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple itself,he was able to enlarge the facade, added storage chambers andauxiliary buildings, build a second story above the temple, andconstruct several courtyards and various buildings associated withthem. In keeping with the earlier tripartite level of holiness, theseadditional temple buildings and courtyards retained the same lineardegree of holiness and exclusion.
Josephuscalled Herod’s temple “a structure more noteworthy thanany under the sun” (Ant. 15.412). Herod built a new monumentalfacade in front of the existing temple and added a second story.Herod’s temple measured 100 cubits (172 ft.) in all threedimensions. It stood on top of a foundation that gave it addedheight. It had two stories, each one 45 cubits (77.5 ft.) in height.On the roof was a parapet, 3cubits in height, which containedgolden spikes, 1 cubit in height, to prevent birds from perching onthe roof’s edge. The temple was decorated with gold overlay.The opening between the ’ulam (“porch”) and thesanctuary was 20 cubits high and 10 cubits wide (34 ft. by 17 ft.).There were two sets of double folding doors. The sanctuary containedthe golden menorah, the table of the bread of the Presence, and thealtar of incense. Between the sanctuary and the holy of holies was alarge tapestry (veil) (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). The holyof holies had gold plating on its walls. Around the temple werethirty-eight cells built in three stories (m.Mid. 4:3–4).All of the cells were interconnected by openings between adjoiningcells and by one in the ceiling to reach the cell above. To thenorth, between the outer wall of the temple and the cells, was aninner stairway with access to the top of the temple and the upperchamber (second story of the temple). The upper chamber allowedpriests to service the holy of holies. They would be suspended inbaskets, covered on three sides, through openings in the floor toclean the gold overlay in the holy of holies.
Thetemple courtyard was surrounded by various gates and buildings. Thesewere specific entrances and buildings that the priests used for thevarious functions of the sacrifices and offerings (Mark 13:1–2).These included the Kindling Gate, Wood Chamber, Gate of theFirstlings, Golah Chamber, Water Gate, Chamber of the Hearth, Gate ofJeconiah, Rinsing Chamber, Gate of the Offering-Women, Salt-ParvaChamber, and Gate of the Flame-Singers. In front of the temple weretwo narrow courts: the court of the priests to the west and the courtof the Israelites (men) to the east. Inside the temple court was thealtar of burnt offering. During the Second Temple period it was astationary, square-shaped altar constructed of unhewn stones.According to the Mishnah (m.Mid. 3:1), this altar was 32 cubitssquare at the base and about 10 cubits in height. A ramp 32 cubitslong, also built of unhewn stones, led the priests up to the altarfrom the south. A laver, the great bronze basin known as “theSea,” stood west of the altar between the altar and the templeporch (’ulam) for the washing of hands and feet. North of thealtar was the place of slaughtering.
Thecourt of the women, 135 cubits square, was in front of the temple tothe east. This court had four smaller courts, one at each corner.Women could enter the temple only as far as this court. It wassurrounded by a colonnade. Inside these porches (porticoes) werethirteen collection boxes for money. This is where Jesus saw the poorwidow donating two copper coins (Luke 21:1–3). The court hadfour large lampstands nearly half the height of the temple. TheMishnah states that each of the corner chambers was 40 cubits squareand roofless. The central area was exposed to the sky, with a porticoaround each courtyard—typical of Mediterranean buildings. Thechamber to the immediate right of the court’s entrance(northeast) was the chamber of the woodshed, where priests examinedlogs for impurities (e.g., parasites). To the left (southeast) wasthe chamber of the Nazirites. To the northwest was the chamber of thelepers. A leper who had been healed brought an offering and thenbathed in this chamber before coming to the priests for theperformance of rituals. In the southwest corner was the chamber ofthe house of oil. Between the court of the women and the temple courtwas the Nicanor Gate. Fifteen semicircular steps led up to this gate.It was on these steps that the Levites sang the fifteen Psalms ofAscent (Pss. 120–134).
Surroundingthe temple and the court of the women was a balustrade or railingthat served as a boundary beyond which no Gentile could enter.Outside this boundary was the court of the Gentiles (see John12:20–22; Acts 21:27–29). Archaeologists have found aninscription that forbids Gentiles, upon pain of death, to enter anyfarther. Herod’s temple was destroyed in AD 70. The TempleMount continued to be used and considered sacred, as Roman temples,Crusader churches, and Muslim shrines marked the sacredness of thelocation.
Roleof the Temple
Thetemple was the dwelling place of Yahweh. It was the domain of thereligious leaders, priests, and Levites. It also represented therelationship/covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Variouskings used the temple for their political maneuvering and attempts toshift the religious worship of the nation. The temple was the visiblepresence of God and embodied the political and religious aspirationsof the people. The temple sat on top of a sacred mountain.
Duringturbulent political times the temple was central to God’sprotection and judgment. From the Babylonian and Roman periods, twotexts spoke of a future temple. Ezekiel’s vision saw afuturistic temple measuring 500 cubits square surrounded by a massivecourt measuring 3,000 cubits square (Ezek. 40:1–47:12). Amongthe DSS, the Temple Scroll also talks about a rebuilt temple. Todaymany Christians and Jews look to a future rebuilding of the temple.
The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).
Heavenand Earth
Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.
Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.
TheTheology of Land
Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).
Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).
Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.
Inheritance
Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).
Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.
Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).
Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).
Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).
Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).
Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).
Outgrowth(s), usually green, of the stem of a plant. In Gen.8:8–11, an olive leaf in the beak of a dove signals to Noahthat the waters of the flood are receding. Many OT passages containreferences to leaves as a metaphor for prosperity (Ps. 1:3; Prov.11:28) as well as for destitution (Job 13:25; Isa. 1:30; 34:4; 64:6).A key difference between the two metaphors depends on whether theleaf is withered. The righteous will thrive like a green leaf (Prov.11:28), whereas Job, discussing his suffering, refers to himself as awindblown leaf (Job 13:25). In the NT, Jesus curses a fig tree thathas leaves but no fruit, immediately causing it to wither (Matt.21:18–22; Mark 11:13–14, 20–25). Leaves are alsoused as an illustration by which Jesus teaches about expectations forthe Son of Man to return (Mark 13:26–28). In Revelation, theleaves of the tree of life are for the healing of the nations (22:2).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
The Olivet Discourse is Jesus’ sermon predicting theJewish War, the destruction of the temple, the fall of Jerusalem inAD 70, and the coming of the Son of Man to judge and to save. It isfound in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 24:1–25:46; Mark 13:1–37;Luke 21:5–36). The name derives from the Mount of Olives,overlooking Jerusalem and the temple, the place where Jesus taughthis disciples this material.
Allthree Synoptics place the discourse following scenes of confrontationwith the Jewish leadership. Matthew’s account is the mostdramatic. Jesus rebukes the scribes and Pharisees in Matt. 23,culminating with the accusation that they are responsible for “allthe righteous blood that has been shed on the earth” (v.35).He pauses to lament for Jerusalem, then declares the temple, which hecalls “your” house, desolate. As he leaves, the disciplesremark on the stones of the temple compound. Jesus then predicts thetotal destruction of the temple. This will indicate the Son of Mancoming with power and great glory (Matt. 24:30) in judgment ofapostate Israel.
Jesususes apocalyptic language to describe coming events: earthquakes,famines, betrayal, signs in the sun, moon, and stars. These are allthe birth pains. Christians will face persecution. They will bebrought before the authorities, but they will be given what to say bythe Holy Spirit. They will be put to death and hated by all nations.False prophets and false messiahs will emerge and attempt to lead theelect astray. Jesus’ repeated command is for the disciples tobe alert, as no one knows the time, not even the Son. It will bepossible, though, to know when the time is approaching, just as theapproach of summer can be predicted by observing the fig tree.
Matthewappends three parables to the end of the discourse concerningpreparedness and reward: the ten virgins, the talents, and the sheepand the goats. The virgins were unprepared when the bridegroomarrived and were shut out of the banquet. The talents were entrustedto servants by a man going on a journey. When he returned, herewarded those who had invested wisely. The last parable is anadaptation of Ezek. 34:11–31, a messianic passage where Godwill gather his scattered sheep. Jesus declares himself to be the onewho judges between the sheep. In Ezekiel the sheep are judged fortheir sins: muddying the water, trampling the food, butting the weaksheep. In keeping with his extended ethical teaching in the Sermon onthe Mount, Jesus will judge even omissions of proper care of eachother: not feeding strangers, not visiting those in prison. Themessage is clear: disciples must be prepared for the return of Jesusat any time, using their gifts wisely and treating the least among uswith care.
Somesay that Jesus is answering two questions from the disciples: “Whenwill this (the destruction of the temple) happen?” and, acompletely separate question, “What will be the sign of your(second) coming?” But Jesus is only recorded as speaking aboutthe temple here, and following the rebuke of the Pharisees, it isclear that he speaks of judgment in connection with the Jewishleaders. Luke makes this clearer in his frank substitution: whereMatthew (24:15) and Mark (13:14) record “when you see ...the abomination of desolation,” Luke (21:20) writes, “whenyou see Jerusalem being surrounded by armies,” a clearreference to AD 70. Matthew (24:28) hints at the same idea: “Whereverthe carcass is, there the eagles [perhaps from the Roman emblem] willbe gathered together” (NKJV). None of the three accounts seemto contemplate answers to two separate questions.
The state of remaining faithful to God in light of therevelation given to persons at their particular stage of redemptivehistory. Perseverance has always required a continued trust in God,obedience to his commands, and reliance upon his merciful provision.
OldTestament.In the OT, perseverance is related to the covenantal relationshipthat God had with his people. Abraham was the quintessential model ofperseverance, as he was faithful in waiting for God to provide himwith the heir that had been promised him. Israel had to persevere byremaining faithful to its covenant with God, which meant beingobedient to his commandments and decrees. In the subsequent historyof Israel, however, the nation lacked perseverance and fidelity andoften turned away from God to worship the gods of other nations.Indeed, the sweep of Israel’s history, according to theprophets, was that Israel had failed miserably at persevering in thecovenantal promises and thus had incurred God’s judgment (e.g.,Neh. 9:6–37; Ezek. 20:1–39; Dan. 9:4–19).
NewTestament.In the Gospels, Jesus is the ultimate example of the faithfulIsraelite and also provides many exhortations about perseverance inlight of the dawning kingdom of God. Jesus perseveres when tested bySatan in the wilderness (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke4:1–13). The parables of growth warn about those who do notpersevere in their reception of the word (e.g., Luke 8:15). Enduranceunder the duress of eschatological trials is also the means by whichone gains one’s life (Matt. 10:22; 24:13; Mark 13:13; Luke21:19). In his farewell speech in the Gospel of John, Jesus exhortshis disciples to abide in him as branches stay rooted in a vine orelse risk being cut off (John 15:1–11).
Inthe course of his letters, Paul has much to say about persevering infaithin Christ. Paul considers “endurance” (hypomonē) tobe among the cardinal qualities of a believer (Rom. 5:3–4;1Thess. 1:3; 2Thess. 1:4; 8:25; 1Tim. 6:11; Titus2:2). There is a sense in which God himself gives endurance to thebeliever (Rom. 15:5; Col.1:11; 2Thess. 3:5). Paul offers some stern warnings aboutapostasy and falling away (Rom. 11:21–22; 1Cor. 10:1–12;Gal. 5:4), but he also adds that Christians experience a sense ofassurance because God is “faithful” and will keepbelievers “blameless” on the day of Christ Jesus (1Cor.1:8–9; Phil. 1:10; 1Thess. 3:13; 5:23). Paul also writesthat nothing in creation can separate a believer from the love of Godin Jesus Christ (Rom. 8:31–39).
TheGeneral Epistles provide further teaching about perseverance. Jamescommends the virtue of perseverance that leads to maturity (1:3–4)and urges his audience to endure just as Job endured sufferings(5:11). Jude writes that believers should endeavor to “keepyourselves in God’s love” while also acknowledging thatGod himself will “keep you from falling” (vv. 21, 24).The book of Hebrews is built around the theme of perseverance andendurance, with key statements about not “drift[ing] away”(2:1) and the exhortation to “run with perseverance the racemarked out for us” (12:1).
Thebook of Revelation focuses strongly on persevering in light ofpersecution and hardship. In the letters to the seven churches thereis the repeated promise of the blessings that await those who“overcome,” which means enduring in the faith (2:7, 11,17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; cf. 21:7). The churches of Asia Minorcorporately are admonished to remain faithful to the point of death(2:10) and in light of the coming judgment (14:12). Three times callsfor patient endurance are made (1:9; 13:10; 14:12). In Revelation,perseverance means holding to the testimony of Jesus (12:17; 17:6;19:10; 20:4).
Summary.Thebiblical teaching on perseverance attempts to balance divinesovereignty and human responsibility. The warnings of apostasy andthe promises of assurance are interwoven in such a way so as not tocompromise the grace and justice of God.
A literary device whereby an author writes under a name otherthan his or her own (a pseu-donym) or a book is deliberately assignedto a fictitious author (pseudepigraphy). In the case of ancientJewish practice, the name borrowed was usually that of some famousworthy of the past (e.g., Enoch, Ezra), with the aim of bolsteringthe credentials of the book to which the name was attached. This is acommon phenomenon in the Apocrypha (e.g., 2Esdras, Baruch,Epistle of Jeremiah). It is even more common in the large collectionof Second Temple texts now known as the Pseudepigrapha (e.g.,1Enoch, Odes of Solomon, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs).(See also Pseudepigrapha.)
Scholarscontinue to debate the morality of pseudonymity and whether it isproper for a pseudonymous book to be placed within the canon ofScripture. Some excuse pseudonymity as a mere stylistic device orexplain it as a culturally accepted convention. Others put a positivespin on the phenomenon, and so, for example, claim that in thePastoral Epistles literate disciples of Paul sought to apply hisideas to newly developing situations in the years following hisdeath. Some argue that such deception for a good cause is legitimatebecause it helped to gain a hearing for orthodox teaching. Otherstotally reject pseudepigraphy, viewing it as little better thandeception and forgery and thus unworthy of literature viewed asinspired by God. The last approach seems to be most consistent with ahigh view of Scripture.
Overthe last two hundred years a number of biblical books have beenidentified by some scholars as pseudonymous, notably Daniel in theOT, and in the NT six letters in the Pauline corpus—Ephesians,Colossians, 2Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles (1–2Timothy, Titus)—together with 2Peter and Jude.
OldTestament
Certainlyone mark of Jewish apocalyptic works is pseudonymity, and the book ofDaniel is often viewed by critical scholars as no exception to thisrule. It is difficult, however, to see how the name “Daniel”would have served to give the OT book named after him the desiredauthority, which is a major motivation for attaching a pseudonym.
Apartfrom the book itself, we essentially know nothing about this Daniel,whom it describes as living in Babylonia during the exile. In thebook of Ezekiel we have two references to a Daniel (Ezek. 14:14, 20).In this passage the prophet says that when the land sins against God,“even if these three men—Noah, Daniel and Job—werein it, they could save only themselves by their righteousness.”There is, in addition, the further reference in Ezek. 14:16 to “thesethree men,” obviously referring to the same three men. Ezekielspeaks of these three men as embodiments of righteousness, but thefact that this Daniel figure is placed between two ancients (Noah andJob) suggests that he too is a figure of antiquity, not acontemporary of Ezekiel.
Ezekiel28:3 taunts the king of Tyre: “Are you wiser than Daniel? Is nosecret hidden from you?” Here “Daniel” (the Hebrewtext at Ezek. 28:3 actually reads “Danel”) obviously is aproverbial figure of wisdom, and this implies that he may have beenwell known in Tyre and therefore could well have beenSyro-Phoenician. There is in fact a “Danel” figurementioned in Ugaritic literature (before 1200 BC). On the other hand,the Daniel of the book of Daniel is not a patriarch like Enoch, Noah,and Job, nor is he a famous figure like Ezra or the assistant to aprophet, as Baruch was to Jeremiah. Daniel is known only through thebook that bears his name. In other words, the usual motivationexplaining the use of a pseudonym does not apply to the canonicalbook of Daniel.
Also,the closing up and sealing of the book (Dan. 8:26; 12:4) is no meredevice necessitated by using as a pseudonym the name of a mansupposedly living in the time of Cyrus. Rather, the sealing signifiesthat much of the content of the later chapters of the book will beunderstood only when the predicted events begin to take place at afuture time, with the book placing Daniel (its presumed author) inthe sixth century BC.
NewTestament
ThePastoral Epistles.With regard to the Pastoral Epistles, all three letters claim to beauthored by the apostle Paul (1Tim. 1:1; 2Tim. 1:1; Titus1:1). In seeking to determine the time of composition within achronology of Paul’s ministry, they must be dated toward theend of his life (in the case of 2Timothy, perhaps only shortlybefore his death) and after the close of the book of Acts, whichconcludes with the apostle’s arrival in Rome (Acts 28). In hisletter to the Romans, Paul anticipates a future mission to Spain(Rom. 15:23–29), but the Pastoral Epistles imply that hereturned to the east. Ephesus and Crete are the presumed locations ofhis coworkers Timothy and Titus (see 1Tim. 1:3; Titus 1:5). Onthis supposition, these letters arise from a further mission thereand a second (and final) imprisonment. The fact that Acts saysnothing about this is no evidence against the supposition.
Itis not necessary to view the mundane ecclesiastical arrangements ofthe Pastoral Epistles as inconsistent with a charismatic model ofleadership in other Pauline letters (note the address to “overseersand deacons” in Phil. 1:1). We know from Acts 14:23; 20:17–38that Paul appointed elders in the churches that he founded. Thetheological differences between the Pastoral Epistles and earlierPauline compositions should not be overemphasized. The stress laidupon “the faith” and “sound teaching” isexactly what might be expected if Paul anticipated his imminentremoval from the scene.
Theother alternative is the theory that after Paul’s death,members of a Pauline school (Timothy? Luke? Onesimus?) continued tosupply letters under his name, addressing contemporary church issuesin the guise of Paul, hoping to guarantee the legacy of the greatapostle. Some scholars go as far as to assert that an admirer of Paulcombined genuine Pauline fragments within a fictitious framework. Theearliest listing of Paul’s letters is that of Marcion (c. AD140), and he fails to mention the Pastoral Epistles. That omissionmay be explained in various ways. There is no evidence, however, thatanyone in the early church (orthodox or heterodox) who knew of theletters doubted their authenticity.
Ephesiansand Colossians.There is some textual uncertainty with regard to the words “inEphesus” in Eph. 1:1, making it possible that the letter wasoriginally a circular letter written by Paul to more than one church.The letter mentions no one by name except Tychicus (Eph. 6:21), whocarried the letter (perhaps to different churches in turn). This isenough to explain its more general orientation than some otherPauline letters, and any supposed theological “development”is not beyond the likely boundaries of Paul’s expansive mind(e.g., his teaching on the church). The use of the “in Christ”formula in Ephesians is not substantially different from how Paulhandles it elsewhere. The letter’s twofold structure ofdoctrinal exposition followed by practical instruction fits a commonPauline epistolary pattern. Indeed, F.F. Bruce refers to thisletter as “the quintessence of Paulinism.”
Ina number of ways Colossians and Ephesians share a common outlook. TheJewish Christian proto-gnostic false teaching combated in Colossiansis not referred to in other Pauline letters, but it may have been alocal Colossian variant. The letter is explicitly attributed to Paul,at both the beginning and the end (Col. 1:1; 4:18). Arguments aboutauthorship based on style and unusual vocabulary are notoriouslyslippery and inconclusive. The high Christology of cosmic dimensionsin Col. 1:15–20; 2:9–10, 15 is also present in undisputedPauline letters (cf. Phil. 2:9–11). The obvious relationship ofColossians to the little letter to Philemon (e.g., Col. 4:9, 17; cf.Philem. 2, 12) is one of the strongest arguments in favor of thePauline authorship of the former. Any theory of pseudepigraphy turnsCol. 4:7–17, with its many names, into fanciful and freeinvention with little real purpose. Also, we might wonder why a laterauthor chose to write under the name of Paul to a church that Paulhimself did not found.
SecondThessalonians.Some view the futuristic timetable provided in 2Thess. 2:1–12as moving beyond Paul, with the world’s end not yet in sight,for the writer teaches that certain things have to happen before thereturn of Christ, whereas in 1Thess. 4:13–5:11 Paul has anearer end in view. In both letters, however, the apostle is seekingto dampen the wrong kind of apocalyptic excitement. In2Thessalonians, it is clear that Paul knows a tradition ofJesus’ teaching about the future, such as also found in Mark13, so that there is nothing unreasonably “late” in theviews expressed.
Thesubstantial overlap in material between 1Thessalonians and2Thessalonians is not evidence of the labors of a laterdisciple and imitator of Paul. It is highly ironic that some scholarssuggest 2Thessalonians is not a genuine letter of Paul: theletter itself condemns a fake letter supposedly from him that claimsthat the day of the Lord is already past (2Thess. 2:2), and theoriginal letter included a final greeting written in Paul’s ownhand (2Thess. 3:17).
SecondPeter and Jude.As for 2Peter, it was not as well known in the early church as1Peter, and some (according to Origen) were hesitant to acceptit. Its author claims to be a witness to the transfiguration (2Pet.1:16–18). Such personal allusions need not be attributed to alater writer who was trying too hard to show that he was Simon Peter.The obvious connection of 2Pet. 1:14 to what is recorded inJohn 21 does not prove that the writer was dependent on that chapter.
Theremarkable parallels between 2Peter and Jude show that one isdependent upon the other, though scholars are not unanimous aboutwhich letter was prior. We cannot rule out that Peter would use andadapt the writings of a less prominent leader such as Jude. Judemakes use of apocryphal books, but neither in Jude nor in 2Peterdo arguments against the particular brand of false teaching require asecond-century (postapostolic) dating.
A literary device whereby an author writes under a name otherthan his or her own (a pseu-donym) or a book is deliberately assignedto a fictitious author (pseudepigraphy). In the case of ancientJewish practice, the name borrowed was usually that of some famousworthy of the past (e.g., Enoch, Ezra), with the aim of bolsteringthe credentials of the book to which the name was attached. This is acommon phenomenon in the Apocrypha (e.g., 2Esdras, Baruch,Epistle of Jeremiah). It is even more common in the large collectionof Second Temple texts now known as the Pseudepigrapha (e.g.,1Enoch, Odes of Solomon, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs).(See also Pseudepigrapha.)
Scholarscontinue to debate the morality of pseudonymity and whether it isproper for a pseudonymous book to be placed within the canon ofScripture. Some excuse pseudonymity as a mere stylistic device orexplain it as a culturally accepted convention. Others put a positivespin on the phenomenon, and so, for example, claim that in thePastoral Epistles literate disciples of Paul sought to apply hisideas to newly developing situations in the years following hisdeath. Some argue that such deception for a good cause is legitimatebecause it helped to gain a hearing for orthodox teaching. Otherstotally reject pseudepigraphy, viewing it as little better thandeception and forgery and thus unworthy of literature viewed asinspired by God. The last approach seems to be most consistent with ahigh view of Scripture.
Overthe last two hundred years a number of biblical books have beenidentified by some scholars as pseudonymous, notably Daniel in theOT, and in the NT six letters in the Pauline corpus—Ephesians,Colossians, 2Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles (1–2Timothy, Titus)—together with 2Peter and Jude.
OldTestament
Certainlyone mark of Jewish apocalyptic works is pseudonymity, and the book ofDaniel is often viewed by critical scholars as no exception to thisrule. It is difficult, however, to see how the name “Daniel”would have served to give the OT book named after him the desiredauthority, which is a major motivation for attaching a pseudonym.
Apartfrom the book itself, we essentially know nothing about this Daniel,whom it describes as living in Babylonia during the exile. In thebook of Ezekiel we have two references to a Daniel (Ezek. 14:14, 20).In this passage the prophet says that when the land sins against God,“even if these three men—Noah, Daniel and Job—werein it, they could save only themselves by their righteousness.”There is, in addition, the further reference in Ezek. 14:16 to “thesethree men,” obviously referring to the same three men. Ezekielspeaks of these three men as embodiments of righteousness, but thefact that this Daniel figure is placed between two ancients (Noah andJob) suggests that he too is a figure of antiquity, not acontemporary of Ezekiel.
Ezekiel28:3 taunts the king of Tyre: “Are you wiser than Daniel? Is nosecret hidden from you?” Here “Daniel” (the Hebrewtext at Ezek. 28:3 actually reads “Danel”) obviously is aproverbial figure of wisdom, and this implies that he may have beenwell known in Tyre and therefore could well have beenSyro-Phoenician. There is in fact a “Danel” figurementioned in Ugaritic literature (before 1200 BC). On the other hand,the Daniel of the book of Daniel is not a patriarch like Enoch, Noah,and Job, nor is he a famous figure like Ezra or the assistant to aprophet, as Baruch was to Jeremiah. Daniel is known only through thebook that bears his name. In other words, the usual motivationexplaining the use of a pseudonym does not apply to the canonicalbook of Daniel.
Also,the closing up and sealing of the book (Dan. 8:26; 12:4) is no meredevice necessitated by using as a pseudonym the name of a mansupposedly living in the time of Cyrus. Rather, the sealing signifiesthat much of the content of the later chapters of the book will beunderstood only when the predicted events begin to take place at afuture time, with the book placing Daniel (its presumed author) inthe sixth century BC.
NewTestament
ThePastoral Epistles.With regard to the Pastoral Epistles, all three letters claim to beauthored by the apostle Paul (1Tim. 1:1; 2Tim. 1:1; Titus1:1). In seeking to determine the time of composition within achronology of Paul’s ministry, they must be dated toward theend of his life (in the case of 2Timothy, perhaps only shortlybefore his death) and after the close of the book of Acts, whichconcludes with the apostle’s arrival in Rome (Acts 28). In hisletter to the Romans, Paul anticipates a future mission to Spain(Rom. 15:23–29), but the Pastoral Epistles imply that hereturned to the east. Ephesus and Crete are the presumed locations ofhis coworkers Timothy and Titus (see 1Tim. 1:3; Titus 1:5). Onthis supposition, these letters arise from a further mission thereand a second (and final) imprisonment. The fact that Acts saysnothing about this is no evidence against the supposition.
Itis not necessary to view the mundane ecclesiastical arrangements ofthe Pastoral Epistles as inconsistent with a charismatic model ofleadership in other Pauline letters (note the address to “overseersand deacons” in Phil. 1:1). We know from Acts 14:23; 20:17–38that Paul appointed elders in the churches that he founded. Thetheological differences between the Pastoral Epistles and earlierPauline compositions should not be overemphasized. The stress laidupon “the faith” and “sound teaching” isexactly what might be expected if Paul anticipated his imminentremoval from the scene.
Theother alternative is the theory that after Paul’s death,members of a Pauline school (Timothy? Luke? Onesimus?) continued tosupply letters under his name, addressing contemporary church issuesin the guise of Paul, hoping to guarantee the legacy of the greatapostle. Some scholars go as far as to assert that an admirer of Paulcombined genuine Pauline fragments within a fictitious framework. Theearliest listing of Paul’s letters is that of Marcion (c. AD140), and he fails to mention the Pastoral Epistles. That omissionmay be explained in various ways. There is no evidence, however, thatanyone in the early church (orthodox or heterodox) who knew of theletters doubted their authenticity.
Ephesiansand Colossians.There is some textual uncertainty with regard to the words “inEphesus” in Eph. 1:1, making it possible that the letter wasoriginally a circular letter written by Paul to more than one church.The letter mentions no one by name except Tychicus (Eph. 6:21), whocarried the letter (perhaps to different churches in turn). This isenough to explain its more general orientation than some otherPauline letters, and any supposed theological “development”is not beyond the likely boundaries of Paul’s expansive mind(e.g., his teaching on the church). The use of the “in Christ”formula in Ephesians is not substantially different from how Paulhandles it elsewhere. The letter’s twofold structure ofdoctrinal exposition followed by practical instruction fits a commonPauline epistolary pattern. Indeed, F.F. Bruce refers to thisletter as “the quintessence of Paulinism.”
Ina number of ways Colossians and Ephesians share a common outlook. TheJewish Christian proto-gnostic false teaching combated in Colossiansis not referred to in other Pauline letters, but it may have been alocal Colossian variant. The letter is explicitly attributed to Paul,at both the beginning and the end (Col. 1:1; 4:18). Arguments aboutauthorship based on style and unusual vocabulary are notoriouslyslippery and inconclusive. The high Christology of cosmic dimensionsin Col. 1:15–20; 2:9–10, 15 is also present in undisputedPauline letters (cf. Phil. 2:9–11). The obvious relationship ofColossians to the little letter to Philemon (e.g., Col. 4:9, 17; cf.Philem. 2, 12) is one of the strongest arguments in favor of thePauline authorship of the former. Any theory of pseudepigraphy turnsCol. 4:7–17, with its many names, into fanciful and freeinvention with little real purpose. Also, we might wonder why a laterauthor chose to write under the name of Paul to a church that Paulhimself did not found.
SecondThessalonians.Some view the futuristic timetable provided in 2Thess. 2:1–12as moving beyond Paul, with the world’s end not yet in sight,for the writer teaches that certain things have to happen before thereturn of Christ, whereas in 1Thess. 4:13–5:11 Paul has anearer end in view. In both letters, however, the apostle is seekingto dampen the wrong kind of apocalyptic excitement. In2Thessalonians, it is clear that Paul knows a tradition ofJesus’ teaching about the future, such as also found in Mark13, so that there is nothing unreasonably “late” in theviews expressed.
Thesubstantial overlap in material between 1Thessalonians and2Thessalonians is not evidence of the labors of a laterdisciple and imitator of Paul. It is highly ironic that some scholarssuggest 2Thessalonians is not a genuine letter of Paul: theletter itself condemns a fake letter supposedly from him that claimsthat the day of the Lord is already past (2Thess. 2:2), and theoriginal letter included a final greeting written in Paul’s ownhand (2Thess. 3:17).
SecondPeter and Jude.As for 2Peter, it was not as well known in the early church as1Peter, and some (according to Origen) were hesitant to acceptit. Its author claims to be a witness to the transfiguration (2Pet.1:16–18). Such personal allusions need not be attributed to alater writer who was trying too hard to show that he was Simon Peter.The obvious connection of 2Pet. 1:14 to what is recorded inJohn 21 does not prove that the writer was dependent on that chapter.
Theremarkable parallels between 2Peter and Jude show that one isdependent upon the other, though scholars are not unanimous aboutwhich letter was prior. We cannot rule out that Peter would use andadapt the writings of a less prominent leader such as Jude. Judemakes use of apocryphal books, but neither in Jude nor in 2Peterdo arguments against the particular brand of false teaching require asecond-century (postapostolic) dating.
Temples have always been the domain and house of the godsthroughout the ancient Near East. As the abode of the God of Israel,the Jerusalem temple served the same purpose. The temple played animportant role in the social, religious, and political life ofancient Israel. No archaeological remains of the actual templebuilding exist today; nevertheless, the temple has dominated biblicalscholarship. The Jerusalem temple was originally built by Solomon in953 BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 586BC. After the exile, the temple was rebuilt and then rededicated byZerubbabel in 515 BC (Ezra). Herod the Great significantly expandedand changed the temple, but it was eventually destroyed by the Romansunder the direction of Titus in AD70.
Thebiblical text refers to the temple in several ways: temple, house ofGod/Yahweh, and sanctuary/shrine. These terms all refer to thedwelling or house of God and an area of sacredness. The sources forinformation on the temple are biblical texts, Josephus, and theMishnah (tractate Middot). The most detailed accounts of theconstruction of the Solomonic temple are found in 1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 2–4. In addition to these major sections, thereare several references to building activities and repairs to thetemple throughout the OT. Another major text is Ezek. 40, but it isdebated whether this represents the actual temple or an ideal temple.There are several references in the NT that directly or indirectlyrefer to functions and specific components of the Temple Mountcomplex.
ArchaeologicalInvestigation
Thelocation of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem has been undisputed.Current scholarly opinion locates the temple on the spot of thecurrent Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock. Today the largerenclosed area is referred to as the harem esh-sharif (the noblesanctuary). Explorers in the nineteenth century did not attemptarchaeological research of the temple itself, although variousexplorations focused on recording visible features and conductingsoundings along the sides of the Temple Mount. Even after theunification of Jerusalem in 1967, with three major excavations in thecity, no archaeological investigation of the temple was conducted.Due to the political and religious variables associated with theMuslim holy sites, there are no foreseeable archaeologicalinvestigations. A recent renovation of the Mosque of Omar, located onthe southern end of the Temple Mount, removed truckloads of earth.Unfortunately, there was no archaeological supervision of the projectand no archaeological excavations of the site were conducted.
Inspite of the limited archaeological excavations, several popularaccounts of alternate locations of the temple have been proposed.Most of these place the temple somewhere other than the Dome of theRock, but none of these proposals has garnered scholarly support torival the current location.
FirstTemple: Temple of Solomon
Throughoutthe ancient Near East, temples served as monumental edifices thatprovided divine legitimacy for the king or dynasty. While templesshould be considered part of the religious sphere of society, theirconstruction, maintenance, and associated activities are interlinkedwith the political sphere. The construction of the temple inJerusalem is also linked to state formation by the Israelites. TheSolomonic temple ushered in a new period of religious activity amongthe ancient Israelites. Previously, Israel had worshiped at variousshrines and sanctuaries, and its central religious practice wasassociated with the tabernacle. With the establishment of themonarchy, dynastic kingship and centralized authority were created.Although the biblical text credits Solomon as the Israelite king whobuilt the temple, the project was initiated under David. David unitedthe Israelite tribes, captured Jerusalem and made it the capital ofthe kingdom, and built a royal palace. He made Jerusalem thepolitical capital but also the religious center when he brought theholy ark, the visible symbol of Yahweh’s presence, to Jerusalem(2Sam. 5–6). David intended to build Yahweh a permanentdwelling (2Sam. 7:2).
Location.Thebiblical text preserves multiple traditions and accounts of thelocation and acquisition of land for the temple. In the ancient worldthe city temple was commonly located on the acropolis (highest point)of the city. The temple is located on the highest point of a ridgewhere the OT city of Jerusalem is located (Jebusite city, later theCity of David). There are two accounts of the purchase of the land:the threshing floors of Araunah (2Sam. 24:18–25) and ofOrnan (1Chron. 21:15–30; 2Chron. 3:1 [here the NIVsupplies “Araunah,” but see, e.g., the NET, NASB, ESV]).It is possible that Araunah and Ornan were kin, but most likely theyare the same person, with Samuel and Chronicles using variant names.However, the two accounts disagree further on the amount paid for theland: fifty silver shekels (2Sam. 24:24) and six hundredshekels of gold (1Chron. 21:25). One theory explains thisdiscrepancy as arising from two separate transactions. First, Davidpurchased the threshing floor to build an altar to Yahweh, and helater purchased the whole mountain to build a temple. Later traditionassociates the hill where David built an altar with the locationwhere earlier Abraham built an altar to sacrifice Isaac (MountMoriah).
Constructionand dimensions.Solomon started to build during the fourth year of his reign(2Chron. 3:1), and construction lasted for seven years. Theplan of the temple was revealed to Solomon during a night in thesanctuary at Gibeon (2Chron. 1:7–13). The king obtainedbuilding materials, specifically cedar from Lebanon (2Chron.2:3–10), and construction and design expertise from Phoenicianartisans (1Kings 7:13–14, 45). The Solomonic templeconsisted of a tripartite plan similar to other temples inSyro-Palestine during this period. There are two accounts for theconstruction and dedication of the first temple (1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 3–7). Both accounts offer similar descriptionsbut there are some differences in measurements. Most scholars accountfor these differences by viewing the dimensions in the book ofChronicles as reflecting the temple measurements after Hezekiah’srepair and rebuilding projects.
Thebasic plan was a rectangle, 70 cubits long (120ft. 7in.)and 20 cubits wide (34ft. 5in.) on a straight axis facingeast; the height was 30 cubits (51ft. 7in.). Thesemeasurements refer to the inside dimensions (1cubit=20.67 in.). The three distinct architectural units formed threedistinct rooms where various functions were performed and alsoreflected levels of holiness. The three units were the ’ulam(“porch” or “vestibule”), the hekal (“cella”or “nave”), and the debir (the innermost sanctuary, themost holy place). In the biblical accounts the whole building iscalled the “house [bayit] of the Lord,” and the word“temple” is used for the hekal. There was a three-storystructure built around the sides and back of the temple (see below).
Theporch was 10 cubits (17ft. 2in.) by 20 cubits (34ft.5in.). The account in Kings does not provide its height; theaccount in Chronicles gives the height as 120 cubits. In itsdescription and measurements in the biblical text, the porch isconsidered separate from the temple (bayit, house). The porchcontained two pillars of bronze: yakin (“he will establish”)on the right side and bo’az (“in strength”) on theleft (see Boaz; Jakin). The pillars were bronze, 18 cubits (35 cubitsin Chronicles) in height, with elaborate double capitals. The bottomcapital was 5 cubits, round in shape, and surrounded by nets withpomegranates. Above this was another capital, 4 cubits high, shapedlike a lily.
Thehekal was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide and was the only partwith windows (1Kings 6:4). The debir was a cube, 20 cubits perside. The debir is also called the “holy of holies.” Thedifference in height (10 cubits shorter than the hekal )is due to the rise in the bedrock. This measurement is confirmedtoday in the interior of the Dome of the Rock.
Thewalls of the house (hekal and debir) were built of whole stonesdressed in the quarry, as “no hammer, chisel or any other irontool was heard at the temple site while it was being built”(1Kings 6:7). The roof was made of cedar wood (1Kings6:10), with crossbeams and intersecting boards. The stone walls werecovered from ground to ceiling with boards of cedar wood, and thefloor was made of cypress wood, covered with gold (1Kings6:30). The wood had carved engravings of cherubim, palm trees, andopen flowers. The hekal and the debir were separated by a partitionmade of olive wood.
Thethree-story structure surrounding the temple was constructed of cedarwood. Each story was 5 cubits. The width of the first floor was 5cubits, the middle 6 cubits, and the top 7 cubits. This structure wasentered from the right side of the temple, and the floors wereconnected by openings with ladders. This structure formed chambersand storage for the activities of the priests.
Infront of the temple was a courtyard surrounded by a wall. Inside thecourtyard was a great bronze basin (known as “the Sea”).This basin rested on the backs of twelve bronze oxen. Ten smallerbasins in groups of five were set on elaborate wheeled stands. Alarge altar also was located in this courtyard.
Inthe holy of holies stood two large cherubim of olive wood coveredwith gold. They were 10 cubits in height, with a wingspan of 10cubits. These cherubim stood over the ark of the covenant. In thehekal were the golden altar, the golden table, and ten lampstands.
History.FromSolomon to Zedekiah, the temple was used for political and religiouspower shifts. Kings of Israel raided the temple treasury to pay offinvaders, closed the temple, or placed idols in the temple in periodsof apostasy. During periods of reform they repaired and rebuilt thetemple and its furnishings.
UnderRehoboam’s reign, Shishak king of Egypt ransacked the templeand removed all its treasures (1Kings 14:25–28; 2Chron.12:9). Asa and his father, Abijah, added to the treasure of thetemple with silver, gold, and other vessels (2Chron. 15:18) butused these to pay Ben-Hadad of Syria to help him fight Baasha king ofIsrael (16:2–3). Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (2Chron. 17)ruled during a time of prosperity and reform. It was under his rulethat the court in front of the temple probably was enlarged (20:5).The sons of Athaliah broke into the temple and worshiped Baal. Duringthe reign of Amaziah the temple was plundered by Jehoash king ofIsrael (2Chron. 25). Uzziah ruled for a long period ofprosperity (787–736 BC) but attempted to burn incense on thealtar in the hekal, a ritual kept solely for the priests. A laterking, Jotham, built the Upper Gate of the house of Yahweh (2Kings15:35; 2Chron. 27:3). Jotham’s son Ahaz took the silverand gold from the temple and sent it as a present to the king ofAssyria. He moved and changed various vessels of the temple and shutit* doors (2Chron. 28:24).
Hezekiahson of Ahaz ruled during a time of prosperity and revival. Hereopened the temple doors (2Chron. 29), cleaned out the temple,and created a 500-cubit-square mount around the temple. Hezekiahconducted many building projects in Jerusalem and reforms throughoutthe land. He also “stripped off the gold with which he hadcovered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the Lord” topay a ransom to Sennacherib king of Assyria (2Kings 18:16). Dueto his building activities, most scholars attribute major changes tothe temple to Hezekiah’s reign. The differences in the templedescriptions in Kings and Chronicles probably reflect two differentperiods of history concerning the temple (e.g., Kings represents thetemple during the period of Solomon, while Chronicles represents thechanges to the temple by Hezekiah). Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son,undid the work of his father by building altars in the temple.
Thelast resurgence of the temple in the life of the people of Israel wasunder Josiah. He instigated a reform throughout the land and acleansing of the temple. Hilkiah the high priest found a copy of the“Book of the Law” (2Kings 22:8). After a reading ofthe law in the public square, a collection was taken from the peopleto be given to workers for temple repair. The Babylonians took someof the temple treasure (2Chron. 36:7) under the rule ofJehoiakim. The last two kings of Judah, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, alsolost temple treasure to Babylon, and eventually the temple wasdestroyed during the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2Chron.36).
SecondTemple: Zerubbabel and the Temple of Herod the Great
Zerubbabel’stemple.Solomon’s temple was rebuilt by the Jews who returned fromexile under the decree of the Persian king Darius (Ezra 6:1–5).The temple was built under the direction of the governor Zerubbabelwith the support of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:13–18)and was dedicated in 515 BC. This would have been a poorer temple dueto the poverty of the inhabitants of Judah. During the Hasmoneanperiod (152–37 BC) a platform and a fortress were constructed.Not much is known about the temple during this period. It would begreatly eclipsed by the work of Herod the Great.
Templeof Herod the Great.Herod invested heavily in building projects throughout his kingdom.He was keen on bringing Hellenistic culture to the Jews but also onupholding traditional Jewish religious practices, especially when itcame to the temple. Just as the first temple mimicked the religiousarchitecture of the ancient Near East, the second temple reflectedthe massive sacred architecture of the classical world. John 2:20indicates that thus far it had taken forty-six years (beyond Herod’slife) to build. Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple,but he was able to make additions to the outside, alter its outerfurnishings, and expand the compound and platform to match thegrandeur of Greco-Roman temples. Today scholars refer to all thesebuildings and the temple as the Temple Mount complex.
Herodexpanded the space of the Temple Mount by building a “box”around the mountain. This was a massive wall with varying height dueto the topography. This wall is still visible today, especially thecurrent religious site of the Western Wall. This construction allowedfor a level platform with various buildings and plazas on the top.The leveling was done by filling in the gaps and buildingsubterranean arches in low areas. One of these areas is located onthe southeast corner (the underground arched supports are erroneouslycalled “Solomon’s Stables” today). The whole areawas surrounded by a colonnaded portico (Solomon’s Colonnade[John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12]). On the northwest corner was theAntonia Fortress (Acts 21:35), and the southern end of the complexcontained the Royal Stoa, a basilica-style building (four rows offorty columns) that housed the Sanhedrin and had other religious andpolitical functions (Luke 22:66).
Thiscomplex became the religious and political center of the city ofJerusalem, and Herod built many auxiliary components. Severalentrances and bridges from the Upper City were built. The publicentered the complex from the south. A southern complex consisting ofmonumental stairs (210 feet wide) and entrance and exit gates (Doubleand Triple Gates) took pedestrians from the outside up throughunderground tunnels to the top of the temple compound. These stairsbecame an area for public forums. In addition, several shops (Mark11:15–17) were built around the complex, as well as a largebathhouse for ritual cleansing. In order to facilitate the manysacrifices, Herod built a complex hydrologic system that broughtwater into the city. This was accomplished by various aqueducts andstorage pools. The Temple Mount had many cisterns and a new pool onthe northeast end of the Temple Mount complex, the Pool of Israel.Although Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple itself,he was able to enlarge the facade, added storage chambers andauxiliary buildings, build a second story above the temple, andconstruct several courtyards and various buildings associated withthem. In keeping with the earlier tripartite level of holiness, theseadditional temple buildings and courtyards retained the same lineardegree of holiness and exclusion.
Josephuscalled Herod’s temple “a structure more noteworthy thanany under the sun” (Ant. 15.412). Herod built a new monumentalfacade in front of the existing temple and added a second story.Herod’s temple measured 100 cubits (172 ft.) in all threedimensions. It stood on top of a foundation that gave it addedheight. It had two stories, each one 45 cubits (77.5 ft.) in height.On the roof was a parapet, 3cubits in height, which containedgolden spikes, 1 cubit in height, to prevent birds from perching onthe roof’s edge. The temple was decorated with gold overlay.The opening between the ’ulam (“porch”) and thesanctuary was 20 cubits high and 10 cubits wide (34 ft. by 17 ft.).There were two sets of double folding doors. The sanctuary containedthe golden menorah, the table of the bread of the Presence, and thealtar of incense. Between the sanctuary and the holy of holies was alarge tapestry (veil) (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). The holyof holies had gold plating on its walls. Around the temple werethirty-eight cells built in three stories (m.Mid. 4:3–4).All of the cells were interconnected by openings between adjoiningcells and by one in the ceiling to reach the cell above. To thenorth, between the outer wall of the temple and the cells, was aninner stairway with access to the top of the temple and the upperchamber (second story of the temple). The upper chamber allowedpriests to service the holy of holies. They would be suspended inbaskets, covered on three sides, through openings in the floor toclean the gold overlay in the holy of holies.
Thetemple courtyard was surrounded by various gates and buildings. Thesewere specific entrances and buildings that the priests used for thevarious functions of the sacrifices and offerings (Mark 13:1–2).These included the Kindling Gate, Wood Chamber, Gate of theFirstlings, Golah Chamber, Water Gate, Chamber of the Hearth, Gate ofJeconiah, Rinsing Chamber, Gate of the Offering-Women, Salt-ParvaChamber, and Gate of the Flame-Singers. In front of the temple weretwo narrow courts: the court of the priests to the west and the courtof the Israelites (men) to the east. Inside the temple court was thealtar of burnt offering. During the Second Temple period it was astationary, square-shaped altar constructed of unhewn stones.According to the Mishnah (m.Mid. 3:1), this altar was 32 cubitssquare at the base and about 10 cubits in height. A ramp 32 cubitslong, also built of unhewn stones, led the priests up to the altarfrom the south. A laver, the great bronze basin known as “theSea,” stood west of the altar between the altar and the templeporch (’ulam) for the washing of hands and feet. North of thealtar was the place of slaughtering.
Thecourt of the women, 135 cubits square, was in front of the temple tothe east. This court had four smaller courts, one at each corner.Women could enter the temple only as far as this court. It wassurrounded by a colonnade. Inside these porches (porticoes) werethirteen collection boxes for money. This is where Jesus saw the poorwidow donating two copper coins (Luke 21:1–3). The court hadfour large lampstands nearly half the height of the temple. TheMishnah states that each of the corner chambers was 40 cubits squareand roofless. The central area was exposed to the sky, with a porticoaround each courtyard—typical of Mediterranean buildings. Thechamber to the immediate right of the court’s entrance(northeast) was the chamber of the woodshed, where priests examinedlogs for impurities (e.g., parasites). To the left (southeast) wasthe chamber of the Nazirites. To the northwest was the chamber of thelepers. A leper who had been healed brought an offering and thenbathed in this chamber before coming to the priests for theperformance of rituals. In the southwest corner was the chamber ofthe house of oil. Between the court of the women and the temple courtwas the Nicanor Gate. Fifteen semicircular steps led up to this gate.It was on these steps that the Levites sang the fifteen Psalms ofAscent (Pss. 120–134).
Surroundingthe temple and the court of the women was a balustrade or railingthat served as a boundary beyond which no Gentile could enter.Outside this boundary was the court of the Gentiles (see John12:20–22; Acts 21:27–29). Archaeologists have found aninscription that forbids Gentiles, upon pain of death, to enter anyfarther. Herod’s temple was destroyed in AD 70. The TempleMount continued to be used and considered sacred, as Roman temples,Crusader churches, and Muslim shrines marked the sacredness of thelocation.
Roleof the Temple
Thetemple was the dwelling place of Yahweh. It was the domain of thereligious leaders, priests, and Levites. It also represented therelationship/covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Variouskings used the temple for their political maneuvering and attempts toshift the religious worship of the nation. The temple was the visiblepresence of God and embodied the political and religious aspirationsof the people. The temple sat on top of a sacred mountain.
Duringturbulent political times the temple was central to God’sprotection and judgment. From the Babylonian and Roman periods, twotexts spoke of a future temple. Ezekiel’s vision saw afuturistic temple measuring 500 cubits square surrounded by a massivecourt measuring 3,000 cubits square (Ezek. 40:1–47:12). Amongthe DSS, the Temple Scroll also talks about a rebuilt temple. Todaymany Christians and Jews look to a future rebuilding of the temple.
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1. Ignoring Advent
Illustration
Matthew T. Phillips
If you are comfortable in this world, then I encourage you to ignore Advent. Christmas is the holiday for you. Waiting and hoping are just not worthwhile, so jump to the fun stuff. Advent only makes sense if you want something else to hold on to. If you need to believe that as wonderful as the sun, the moon, and the stars may be, when they fall away it will be because a new, brighter, more perfect light has come and we no longer need those things.
Advent is a special time when we anticipate our favorite stories about Jesus' birth, but if we do it right, it's also a time when we look at ourselves and our world and decide that we shouldn't be comfortable. We shouldn't be comfortable that people are starving a stone's throw away and that their starvation will last long past the holiday season when people are feeling generous with canned goods. We shouldn't be comfortable that we stand on the brink of World War III—that's right, you heard it here first—and our own neighbors worship the flag of one aggressor and the oil of another.
The alternative is to trust in the kind of king who gets born in a feeding trough, who teaches that people who trust in God should not be concerned about their status or well-being in this world, and who gets strung up on a cross for telling the truth to people who were completely comfortable with the world as they knew it.
2. Pop Quiz: Advent
Illustration
Matthew T. Phillips
On Friday, a teacher told his class that he was going to give a surprise quiz the following week. One clever student—we'll call him Jamie—went home and thought about this pop quiz. He didn't know the subject very well, and was upset that he was going to miss his whole weekend to study. Jamie tried to figure out what day the quiz might be. First, he noticed that it couldn't be Friday, because if they got to Thursday and hadn't had the quiz yet, then everyone would know it was on Friday, and the teacher had said it would be a surprise. Friday is out. Well, now the text couldn't be on Thursday, because if they got to Wednesday with no quiz then everyone would know the quiz was on Thursday, because Friday was already ruled out. Thursday is out too. By the same logic, the test couldn't be on Wednesday or Tuesday. That left Monday as the only possible day, so a test given that day wouldn't be a surprise. Jamie figured out there was no way for the teacher to give a surprise pop quiz, so he spent his weekend playing with his friends, going to church and youth, and watching Monty Python movies. Anyone want to guess what happened? The teacher gave the quiz on Wednesday morning, Jamie was surprised, and he failed.
Did I tell this story just to embarrass Jamie? Certainly not. We read Jesus' prophecy about his second coming, especially the part about the present generation not passing away before all these things come to be, and we reason that since, as far as we understand, part of the prophecy was not true, we should just read this all as a nice set of symbols. That part about expecting the master to come home and keeping awake—we don't really need to do that, because he hasn't come back in the past two thousand years. The odds are pretty good he won't come back this year either. Well, the odds were pretty good Jamie wouldn't fail the pop quiz.
3. Something New Under the Sun
Illustration
Steven E. Albertin
The universe seems to have been around for billions of years. It could be around for billions more years. These numbers are mind-numbing when you think that humans have only been recording history for five or six thousand years. I remember a conversation I had with my father many years ago. I must have been a small child who was shocked by the cruel treatment I had received from my friends. He reminded me how I shouldn't be surprised. People are sinners. The more things change, the more they stay the same, when it comes to human nature. "There is nothing new under the sun."
Perhaps that is why Jesus' words in today's Gospel seem so unreal, almost farfetched. Almost 2,000 years ago Jesus spoke graphically of the end of the world. The universe will literally fall apart and he will return riding on the clouds in all of his glory for the final judgment. He will finally set things right. The bad guys will finally get what they had coming to them. The good guys, here called "the elect," will finally get saved. Finally, at last, there will be some closure on human history. Finally, the last out will be made and the final buzzer will sound. Finally, there will be clear winners and losers. Finally, the fat lady will sing!
4. Something Even Worse
Illustration
Steven E. Albertin
Perhaps some of you remember General Alexander Haig, a military leader in the war in Vietnam and political leader in the Reagan administration. Now, General Haig was not exactly what you would call a great theologian. He once said something which on the surface sounded utterly stupid, and he was roundly criticized by the media for saying it. He said, "There are worse things than a nuclear war." That sounds like he stuck his foot in his mouth, but that is exactly what we Christians believe. What is far worse than a nuclear war? Not having faith and trust in God. Not to trust God and his promises means that we are headed for a destiny even worse than a nuclear holocaust. But to trust and believe the promises of God means that nothing in this world, not even the mushroom cloud of a nuclear bomb or the ecological disaster of global warming or the insidious attack of terminal cancer or the suffering and humiliation of an economic recession can separate us from the love of God in Jesus Christ. We can believe that because our Judgment Day has already happened.
5. In the Hands of God
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
Raymond Fung, who some years ago served as secretary of evangelism for the World Council of Churches, asserts that "waiting is an attitude, an inclination to act. Our waiting communicates that life is not all it should be. We wait because there is something worth having. We wait because the resources we need to survive and to grow are not in our own hands, but in the hands of God."
6. The Direction We Walk
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
Brethren historian Don Durnbaugh tells the story of Rufus Bucher, a noted Church of the Brethren minister and evangelist in the early 1900s. Bucher was called to the ministry in 1901, and in the course of that ministry was one of the most effective leaders of revival or evangelistic meetings that were common in those days. Indeed, Rufus Bucher led more than 200 series of such meetings in thirteen states, reportedly assisting nearly 3000 persons to make commitments to Christ and the church.
A resident of Lancaster County in Pennsylvania, Bucher reportedly was asked about the growing Pentecostal movement in that area. It was apparent that the questioner was critical, and hoped that Bucher would concur and would join in condemning these "holy rollers" who were shouting and jumping in the aisles. Rufus Bucher is said to have responded: "I don't care how high they jump. What matters is the direction they walk after they come down."
7. Don't Panic
Illustration
Keith Wagner
"Don't panic!" Those are the words I frequently say when someone has come to see me and they are in the midst of a crisis. They may have lost their job, had a marital crisis, a problem with a child, or found themselves in serious financial trouble. They are anxious. It seems like the world is caving in on them. They feel lonely and afraid. They can't see anyway out of their predicament.
It has been my experience over the years as a pastor that when folks are desperate they tend to run, quit or act in haste. I am not discounting their pain or minimizing the crisis, rather I am merely helping them to see that their perceptions have exaggerated the crisis. Or, they have a distorted perception of reality.
This was the case with the disciples. They were being persecuted by an oppressive government. They were powerless and under immense pressure. All seemed dark and hopeless, so much so that they wondered if the "end" was near. They were desperate, blinded by their anxiety and totally unable to see into the future.
They are no different than us. Whenever things are happening in the world of epic proportions, like hurricanes, wars, catastrophes or plagues there are those who believe that the world is coming to an end.
8. The Impossible Takes A Little Longer
Illustration
Keith Wagner
At the age of 20, Art Berg was a very happy man. Everything was going right. He was a gifted athlete and had started his own tennis court construction company. And he was engaged to a beautiful woman. Leaving California one Christmas eve, he was headed to Utah with a friend. He was going to meet his fiancée and complete their wedding plans.
During the long drive, he fell asleep while at the wheel. His car hit an abutment and rolled down a hill. He was ejected from the car and found himself laying on the desert with a broken neck. He was paralyzed from the chest down. He completely lost the use of his legs and arms. The doctors told him he would never work again. They concluded that he could never play sports again and would be dependent on others the rest of his life. One even suggested he forget getting married.
Art Berg was really afraid. It was the darkest moment in his life. The "end times" were upon him. In the midst of his peril his mother came and whispered a few words in his ear. "Art, while the difficult takes time, the impossible takes a little longer." In other words, "don't panic!" Suddenly, Art's darkness was filled with a light of hope. That was eleven years ago. Today Art Berg is president of his own company, a professional speaker and author. He has gained back some of the use of his arms and legs and can now drive. He travels across the country sharing his message, "that the impossible just takes a little longer." Art married his fiancée and they have two children. He has even returned to the world of sports, swimming and scuba diving. In l993 Art was the first quadriplegic to race 32 miles in a marathon, all because he didn't panic.
Don't panic, is the message of the day.
9. Waiting Is an Opportunity
Illustration
Keith Wagner
It's the season of waiting in lines, waiting for packages to come in the mail, waiting for children to give you their Christmas lists, waiting in line to have your picture taken with Santa, waiting for your Christmas bonus check, waiting in traffic, waiting for a parking space, waiting, waiting, waiting.
One thing we don't do very well in our society is wait. We get impatient. We get nervous and some even get angry. That's because we see waiting as wasted time. It's boring to sit and wait. It's "down" time or "dead" time. We equate waiting time with being non-productive.
Waiting does not have to be seen as a bad thing. Waiting is an opportunity to reflect or meditate. Nor do we have to fill our idle time with things to do. The more time we spend working the less time we have to spend with our families or attending to our souls. Our society has become so production focused that we have lost sight of the fact that we need time to think, relax or just wonder.
10. Funny Things Are Everywhere
Illustration
Charles Hoffacker
There's an interesting quote - from an unexpected source - that applies to this First Day of Advent, from a book you may have read to your children or grandchildren, or that you may remember from your own childhood. The book is by Dr. Seuss, and is entitled ‘One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish.' The quote to consider today is brief:
From there to here,
from here to there,
funny things
are everywhere.
Funny things are everywhere! And there are two things funny about this First Sunday of Advent, the start of a new church year. The first of them is that, here at the start of a new year, we don't look back to the beginning, but we look forward to the end. Here on the first day of the new church year, we do not focus on the past, but we anticipate the future where Christ promises to meet us.
The second funny thing about today is related to the first. When we look forward to the end, when we anticipate the future, we do not treat this conclusion as some distant, far-off event. It is near at hand. It may be as close as the next second. So imminent is it, in fact, that the future comes and takes up residence in the present. The Christ who will arrive with power and great glory at the end of time comes to us also before the end of time.
11. Stay and Shine
Illustration
Eric Ritz
Sue Monk Kidd, best known for her book The Secret Life of Bees,tells about when her daughter was small and got the dubious part of the Bethlehem star in a Christmas play. After her first rehearsal, she burst through the door with her costume, a five-pointed star lined in shiny gold tinsel designed to drape over her like a sandwich board. "What exactly will you be doing in the play?" her mother asked her.
"I just stand there and shine," her daughter answered. Sue Monk Kidd says she has never forgotten that response.
Jesus' disciples were concerned about the future and their part in it. Jesus wanted them to know that their role was to stay behind and shine. But they would not be alone. He would be with them. He would give them the power to transform their aches into alleluias.
12. Watchfulness
Illustration
Tim Carpenter
In Frankfort, Kentucky (United States) it is said that the city was enthralled in a big debate many years ago about placing a water fountain in a public square. The argument became heated in the legislature and at the governor's mansion. Finally, a decision was made to ask three contractors to bid on the project.
The first contractor was from Western Kentucky. When asked what his bid was he replied, "$3,000." Then he was asked to break it down, to which he replied, "$1,000 for labor, $1,000 for materials, and $1,000 for me." The next contractor was from Eastern Kentucky. When asked to give his bid and to break it down he said, "$6,000. $2,000 for labor, $2,000 for materials, and $2,000 for me."
The last contractor was an established contractor from Frankfort who usually got all of the bids for the capital. When asked to give his bid, he replied, "$9,000." Then they asked him to break it down. He closed the doors, looked around cautiously, and then said, "$3,000 for YOU, $3,000 for me, and we give the bid to the guy from Western Kentucky!"
Now, they had bigger problems in Frankfort than deciding on a water fountain. But so often we can get sidetracked by things that seem important, like water fountains. The disciples weremore concerned with the temple being destroyed and the world coming to an end than they were with the things that matter most in life: character, integrity, compassion, and preparedness for Christ's return. This is what Jesus means when he tells his Disciples to watch!
13. Preparation for Christmas
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
Advent is a time of personal preparation for Christmas. And we have to be prepared if we want to see God's work. We have to stay awake and be alert so that Christmas can be meaningful. We have to prepare our hearts as well as our homes.
A woman and her daughter were out Christmas shopping on the day after Thanksgiving. Just as everyone had predicted, the crowds were awful. They had to skip lunch because they were on a tight schedule. Toward the end of the day, Mom was hungry, tired and her feet were killing her. She was getting more and more irritable. As they left the last store, she turned to her daughter and asked, "Did you see the nasty look that salesman gave me?"
Her daughter answered, "He didn't give it to you, Mom. You had it when you went in."
14. As Soon As Jesus Comes
Illustration
One clergy family decided to let their three-year-old son record the message for their home answering machine. The rehearsals went smoothly: "Mommy and Daddy can't come to the phone right now. If you'll leave your name, phone number, and a brief message, they'll get back to you as soon as possible." Then came the test. The father pressed the record button and their son said sweetly, "Mommy and Daddy can't come to the phone right now. If you'll leave your name, phone number, and a brief message, they'll get back to you as soon as Jesus comes."
15. Put Your Hands on the Plow
Illustration
Eric Ritz
While we wait and trust, we are also to put our hands to the plow. We are prepared simply by doing the work God has called us to do and doing it faithfully and with vigilance, regardless of the world's clock and the climate that it has surrounded us with.
During the Second World War there was a young boy in a small town who had to go to the drugstore for his mother. As he arrived at the drugstore, he saw a poster on the front window that made a great impression upon him. It was the picture of an American soldier dressed in full battle uniform lying flat on his face, dead in the sands of a South Pacific island. He was lying there with the ocean cradling his body, and at the bottom of the poster was this question: "What have you done for your country today that's worth this soldier dying yesterday?"
Let's change that scene and go outside the city of Jerusalem to a hill called Calvary and ask you to look on a cross and see the Son of God, the Savior, dying for your sins and the sins of the world. Let me ask you the question: "What have you done for Christ today that's worth what He gave for you on Calvary?"
16. Introducing Jesus
Illustration
Eric Ritz
Dr. Norman Vincent Peale was one of the most sought after speakers of the 20th century. Shortly before his death, he spoke for his good friend Robert Schuler in the Crystal Cathedral. Dr. Schuler began his introduction by saying: "I want to introduce you to the most dynamic person you will ever meet in your life. He is exciting, positive and winsome. He can reach down inside of you more deeply than anyone else you have ever known before. He will give you self-confidence and courage, and a whole lot of other things you have always wanted in your life but have not had."
Dr. Peale was astounded. He had never been introduced like this before. How could he possibly respond to this introduction? As he was trying to think of some response, he heard Dr. Schuler continue: "The person of whom I am speaking, of course, is Jesus Christ. And here to tell you about Him is my friend, Dr. Norman Vincent Peale."
17. The Joy and Hope of Advent
Illustration
Eric Ritz
A retired United Methodist bishop once said: "If you are at the stage of life or age of life when your back goes out more than you do, do not let your aches get in the way of your alleluias." That's a good message for us.
Dr. M. Scott Peck, in his best-selling book The Road Less Traveled, begins with the statement, "Life is difficult." In a sequel to that book, he begins by saying: "Life is complex." Both statements are of course true. Life is both difficult and complex, but Advent is a season of hope. The prophet Isaiah cried out to God, "O that Thou would rend the heavens and come down . . . ." We affirm during this season of the year the most basic teachings of our faith that God has come down into our world through the person of Jesus Christ. The Word has become incarnate and now life does not seem as daunting, as frightening, as dreary or as gray.
18. Waiting
Illustration
Eric Ritz
I read recently of a survey taken by a doctor who polled 3,000 people and asked them this simple question: "What are you living for?" The survey revealed that over 90 percent of the people were WAITING for something significant to change or happen in their lives and in the lives of those with whom they were involved. Let me share a few examples:
A. A middle-aged couple was waiting for their parents to die before they went on to the next stage of their lives.
B. Another couple was waiting for their children to get married.
C. A younger couple was waiting to have a child.
D. A younger child said he was waiting for the day when his Dad no longer had to sleep on the couch and could sleep in the bedroom. Maybe his Dad would be in a better mood.
A character in T. S. Eliot's play, "The Elder Statesman," shares this insight on waiting: "If I had the energy to work myself to death how gladly would I face death! However, waiting, simple waiting with no desire to act, yet a loathing of inaction. It is like sitting in an empty waiting room in a railroad station on a branch line after the last train, after all the other passengers have left, and the booking office is closed and the porters have gone."
19. Take Heed and Watch
Illustration
Eric Ritz
I've none some stubborn men in my life but here's two guys who take it to new heights. Thethe London Times ran a front-page story about an Englishman named Arthur Arch. He had just celebrated his 95th birthday, which was an accomplishment in and of itself. But the truly newsworthy thing about Mr. Arch was that for 42 years he had been precisely and consistently 20 minutes late for every meeting and appointment he had. According to his own time, he was always prompt. But according to everyone else's time, he was always late!
You see, in 1922 in England they changed all of the clocks by 20 minutes. I don't know why, but I do know that Mr. Arch never accepted the change. In fact, he said: "Nobody is going to take 20 minutes off my life. So, I'll keep my watch at the old standard time. And some day I plan to die 20 minutes late just to prove that I was right!"
Now, Mr. Arch had an American counterpart, who was also a very stubborn man, a Kansas farmer, and an independent thinker if there ever was one. I don't know his name, but I do know that in the early 1940s, this Kansas farmer alleged that the worst thing that ever happened to the United States of America was the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt as President. And, he said, the worst thing Roosevelt ever did was to approve the order of Daylight Saving Time. As you know, the order went through, but the old farmer never changed his clocks, so he was always one hour off the time observed by everyone else. That farmer, like Arthur Arch, lived and died by the old time. And his defense, he felt, was theological. He said, "I will not exchange God's time for Roosevelt's time!"
Our scripture lesson today resounds with the same thought, that we are not to exchange God's time for Caesar's time. We are to "take heed, watch, pray; for you do not know when the time is."
20. Twas the Beginning of Advent
Illustration
Richard J. Fairchild
Today I want to read to you a poem that is based on a rather famous poem about Christmas called ‘Twas the Beginning of Advent'. It is by a friend of mine - Todd Jenkins. It will tell you a little bit about this season we celebrate.
'Twas the beginning of Advent and all through the Church
Our hope was all dying we'd given up on the search.
It wasn't so much that Christ wasn't invited,
But after 2,000 plus years we were no longer excited.
Oh, we knew what was coming no doubt about that.
And that was the trouble it was all "old hat."
November brought the first of an unending series of pains
With carefully orchestrated advertising campaigns.
There were gadgets and dolls and all sorts of toys.
Enough to seduce even the most devout girls and boys.
Unfortunately, it seemed, no one was completely exempt
From this seasonal virus that did all of us tempt.
The priests and prophets and certainly the kings
Were all so consumed with the desire for "things!"
It was rare, if at all, that you'd hear of the reason
For the origin of this whole holy-day season.
A baby, it seems, once had been born
In the mid-east somewhere on that first holy-day morn.
But what does that mean for folks like us,
Who've lost ourselves in the hoopla and fuss?
Can we re-learn the art of wondering and waiting,
Of hoping and praying, and anticipating?
Can we let go of all the things and the stuff?
Can we open our hands and our hearts long enough?
Can we open our eyes and open our ears?
Can we find him again after all of these years?
Will this year be different from all the rest?
Will we be able to offer him all of our best?
So many questions, unanswered thus far,
As wise men seeking the home of the star.
Where do we begin how do we start
To make for the child a place in our heart?
Perhaps we begin by letting go
Of our limits on hope, and of the stuff that we know.
Let go of the shopping, of the chaos and fuss,
Let go of the searching, let Christmas find us.
We open our hearts, our hands and our eyes,
To see the king coming in our own neighbours' cries.
We look without seeking what we think we've earned,
But rather we're looking for relationships spurned.
With him he brings wholeness and newness of life
For brother and sister, for husband and wife.
The Christ-child comes not by our skill,
But rather he comes by his own Father's will.
We can't make him come with parties and bright trees,
But only by getting down on our knees.
He'll come if we wait amidst our affliction,
Coming in spite of, not by our restriction.
His coming will happen of this there's no doubt.
The question is whether we'll be in or out.
"Behold, I stand at the door and knock."
Do you have the courage to peer through the lock?
A basket on your porch, a child in your reach.
A baby to love, to feed and to teach.
He'll grow in wisdom as God's only Son.
How far will we follow this radical one?
He'll lead us to challenge the way that things are.
He'll lead us to follow a single bright star.
But that will come later if we're still around.
The question for now: Is the child to be found?
Can we block out commercials, the hype and the malls?
Can we find solitude in our holy halls?
Can we keep alert, keep hope, stay awake?
Can we receive the child for ours and God's sake?
From on high with the caroling host as he sees us,
He yearns to read on our lips the prayer: Come Lord Jesus!
As Advent begins all these questions make plea.
The only true answer: We will see, we will see.
21. False Prophets and Messiahs
Illustration
Tim Carpenter
Several years ago, Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks did a comedy skit called the "2000Year Old Man". In the skit, Reiner interviews Brooks, who is the old gentleman. At one point, Reiner asks the old man, "Did you always believe in the Lord?"
Brooks replied: "No. We had a guy in our village named Phil, and for a time we worshiped him."
Reiner: You worshiped a guy named Phil? Why?
Brooks: Because he was big, and mean, and he could break you in two with his bare hands!
Reiner: Did you have prayers?
Brooks: Yes, would you like to hear one? O Phil, please don't be mean, and hurt us, or break us in two with your bare hands.
Reiner: So when did you start worshiping the Lord?
Brooks: Well, one day a big thunderstorm came up, and a lightning bolt hit Phil. We gathered around and saw that he was dead. Then we said to one another, "There's somthin' bigger than Phil!"
22. Predictions of the Future
Illustration
Here are some predictions of the future. All from people who could be trusted:
"Where a calculator on the ENIAC is equipped with 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighs 30 tons, computers in the future may have only 1,000 vacuum tubes and weigh only 1.5 tons." Popular Mechanics, 1949
"While theoretically and technically television may be feasible, commercially and financially it is an impossibility." Lee DeForest, inventor.
"We don't like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out." Decca Recording Co. rejecting the Beatles, 1962.
"The concept is interesting and well-formed, but in order to earn better than a 'C', the idea must be feasible." A YaleUniversity management professor in response to Fred Smith's paper proposing reliable overnight delivery service. (Smith went on to found Federal Express Corp.)
"Who the h*** wants to hear actors talk?" H. M. Warner, Warner Brothers, 1927.
"I'm just glad it'll be Clark Gable who's falling on his face and not Gary Cooper." Gary Cooper on his decision not to take the leading role in "Gone With the Wind."
"Radio has no future. Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible. X-rays will prove to be a hoax." William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, British scientist, 1899.
"It will be years not in my time before a woman will become Prime Minister." Margaret Thatcher, 1974.
"I see no good reasons why the views given in this volume should shock the religious sensibilities of anyone." Charles Darwin, The Origin Of Species, 1869.
"There is no reason anyone would want a computer in their home." Ken Olson, president, chairman and founder of Digital Equipment Corp., 1977.
"With over 50 foreign cars already on sale here, the Japanese auto industry isn't likely to carve out a big slice of the U.S. market." Business Week, August 2, 1968.
"Stocks have reached what looks like a permanently high plateau." Irving Fisher, Professor of Economics, Yale University, 1929.
"There is not the slightest indication that nuclear energy will ever be obtainable. It would mean that the atom would have to be shattered at will." Albert Einstein, 1932.
"The bomb will never go off. I speak as an expert in explosives." Admiral William Leahy, U.S. Atomic Bomb Project.
"There will never be a bigger plane built." A Boeing engineer, after the first flight of the 247, a twin engine plane that holds ten people.
"Louis Pasteur's theory of germs is ridiculous fiction." Pierre Pachet, Professor of Physiology at Toulouse, 1872.
23. On the Preparation Committee
Illustration
Donald B. Strobe
It is understandable that some Christians have grown impatient over the centuries, and have tried to speed things up a bit. I love what someone once said about the return of the Lord. "God did not put me on the Time & Place Committee; He put me on the Preparation Committee." Our job is not to speculate about times and seasons, but to make sure that we are living as God wants us to live - sisters and brothers to one another - here and now. Some folks are "so heavenly minded they are no earthly good."
24. Is the Mule for Sale?
Illustration
Once upon a time there was a woman married to an annoying man. He would complain about everything. One day he went to the creek with his mule. He complained so much that the mule got annoyed and kicked him to death. At the funeral, when all the men walked by the wife she shook her head yes and every time the women walked by she shook her head no.
The minister asked "Why are you shaking your head yes for men and no for women?" Her response was, "The men would say how sorry they felt for me and I was saying, "Yes, I'll be alright." When the women walked by, they were asking if the mule was for sale…"
25. I Shall Be Ready
Illustration
Mickey Anders
In the movie Mrs. Brown, Queen Victoria is sunk in a deep depression after the death of her husband Albert when her advisers come up with an idea. They send for her pony to be brought to Balmoral, accompanied by a handsome Scot named John Brown. She is not interested in being cheered up, and is infuriated when she looks out in the royal courtyard to see John Brown standing at attention beside her saddled pony. Day after day she refuses to go down. Day after day he returns. Finally she sends someone to tell him that she is not now and may never be interested in riding. John Brown is unmoved. "When her majesty does wish to ride," he says, "I shall be ready."
John Brown shows the attitude Jesus wants from us in our faith life. Can we say, "When His Majesty, God, does come, I shall be ready"?
26. I Would Plant an Apple Tree
Illustration
Donald B. Strobe
Martin Luther was once asked what he would do if he knew that the world was coming to an end tomorrow, and he said: "I would plant an apple tree." In other words, Luther, trusting in God's gracious, unmerited mercy would live life just as he had been living it. When John Wesley was asked the same thing, being an obsessive-compulsive type, he said that he would arise at 4:00 AM, preach at 5:00 visit the sick at 7:00, go to communion at 8:00...etc., until the questioner realized that that was exactly what Wesley had planned to do tomorrow anyway! Because we believe that God is like Christ, we can dare to live in faith and hope and love now; trusting God for whatever the future holds, because we believe that God holds the future, and that God's Name and God's Nature are love.
27. We Expect the Ground to Be Firm
Illustration
Mickey Anders
Biblical writers were fascinated by earthquakes, and referred to them often to make their point. An earthquake is a good image for cataclysmic times when "everything nailed down is coming loose." Earthquakes threaten our assumptions about the stability of life. We like to think of earth as rock solid, but sometimes the earth moves. Sometimes when people fear flying on a plane, they resort to the ancient Latin by saying, "Just get me back to terra firma." We expect the ground to be firm. We want our buildings tied to the bedrock because our foundations need to tie to something that won't move.
We are easily lured into thinking the same about our lives. We expect stability. We expect our lives to be "rock solid," but then something traumatic happens and "everything nailed down is coming loose."
28. Disappointment at the Chaos
Illustration
Russell F. Metcalfe
When I was a junior in Akron North High we had a substitute English teacher for a while, and she was almost always late for our class, which met on the third floor. She usually arrived with her arms full of books and papers, out of breath, scolding us, good-naturedly for the most part, into silence. One awful day she was later than usual, and the class was noisier than usual. Erasers were flying, books were sailing. It probably doesn't do any good to tell you that, truthfully, I usually did not take part in the chaos, although I can't say I didn't enjoy it.
Anyway, on this fateful day one boy Stanleyproduced a cherry bomb from his pocket. The room got very quiet. Stanley lit a match and we held our breaths. The windows were open they were the kind that the middle pane swung out from the top. Stanley evidently intended to light the bomb in the classroom and throw it out the window toward the athletic field two stories below. We couldn't believe it but Stanley lit the bomb and threw it and it hit the window pane above the open window and bounced back into the middle of the room, under the desks, hissing. Just at that very moment our teacher came breathlessly into the quiet room - quiet except for the hissing - with her arms full of books. But before she had a chance to worry about why we were quiet, or what the hissing sound was, KA-BOOM! the cherry bomb exploded, and instantly the room was full of smoke, and then there was silence again.
Our teacher did not drop her armload of books. She did not miss a step. She simply went over to the desk and sat down and put her face on the books and papers she had been carrying. I think it may have been a full five minutes that no one said a word, no one made a sound. I imagine today the police would have been called and someone would've been expelled from school, and there certainly would be a lawsuit. But her awful silence, and the fact that we were all shocked and stunned was punishment for us all, even Stanley the bomb-thrower. More than forty-five years later I still feel that little woman's pain and disappointment at the chaos that greeted her coming.
29. A Distinguished Guest
Illustration
John A. Stroman
There is a passage in the old Jewish book of Zohar, that goes like this:
"Whenever the Jews on earth rejoice in their festivals, they give praise to the Lord. They put on fine clothes and pile their tables with good food. So the angel asks, 'Why do the Jews pamper themselves so much?' And God answers, 'They have a distinguished guest today. I am with them.' "Today is a very special day. We are preparing for a very special guest. It is the first Sunday of Advent. Our celebration begins with the word "Emmanuel," which means, "God is with us."
30. Born to Play This Game
Illustration
Brett Blair & Stephen Brown
During the 1980 Olympics, almost everyone expected that the Russian ice hockey team would defeat the United States team. Russia had won game after game against some of the finest professional teams in the world, and the amateurs from the United States didn’t seem to have a chance. The only thing uncertain was how big the Russian win would be. The United States’ victory is recalled by many as one of the most exciting in American sports history. But most people don’t know the words spoken to the United States team by Coach Herb Brooks just before the game - maybe one of the best pep talks in history. He simply said, "Gentlemen, you were born to play this game!"
The God who calls us, tells us: "You were born to reach out, to minister to a broken dying people. Do it well, do it with compassion because this is your function in the world."
Note: For a longer treatment of this illustration you can incorporate the coach's entire speech and pull out the memorable line "you were born to play this game" for emphases afterwards. Here's the full speech:
Greatmomentsare born from great opportunity. And that’s what you have here, tonight, boys. That’s what you’ve earned here tonight.
One game… If we played ’em ten times, they might win nine. But not this game… Not tonight. Tonight, we skate with them. Tonight, we stay with them. And we shut them down because we can!Tonight, WE are the greatest hockey team in the world.
You were born to be hockey players, every one of you. And you were meant to be here tonight. This is your time. Their time is done. It’s over. I’m sick and tired of hearing about what a great hockey team the Soviets have. Screw ’em.This is your time. Now go out there and take it.
Clarification: Though this is the speech give by actor Kurt Russel in the movie "Miracle,"the speech was written from the memory of team player Jack O'Callahan, and was confirmed as being pretty accurate by the rest of the 1980 team.
31. Packed and Ready
Illustration
Staff
The word "maranatha" is a Syriac expression that means: "our Lord comes." It was used as a greeting in the early church. When believers gathered or parted, they didn't say "hello" or "goodbye" but "Maranatha!" If we had the same upward look today, it would revolutionize the church. O that God's people had a deepening awareness of the imminent return of the Savior!
While on a South Pole expedition, British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton left a few men on Elephant Island, promising that he would return. Later, when he tried to go back, huge icebergs blocked the way. But suddenly, as if by a miracle, an avenue opened in the ice and Shackleton was able to get through. His men, ready and waiting, quickly scrambled aboard. No sooner had the ship cleared the island than the ice crashed together behind them. Contemplating their narrow escape, the explorer said to his men, "It was fortunate you were all packed and ready to go!" They replied, "We never gave up hope. Whenever the sea was clear of ice, we rolled up our sleeping bags and reminded each other, 'The boss may come today.'"
The hymn writer Horatius Bonar exhorted us "to be ready for the last moment by being ready at every moment...so attending to every duty that, let Him come when He may, He finds the house in perfect order, awaiting His return." The trump may sound anytime. How important for us as Christians to be "packed and ready to go!"
As you leave home today, don't say goodbye say "Maranatha!"
Our Daily Bread
32. Jesus Is Coming!
Illustration
Edward S. Gleason
A man applied for a position that required him to instruct and inspire younger people. His interviewer and evaluator asked him, "Tell me about your walk with Jesus." The man replied, "You know, everywhere I go, no matter where or when, I find that Jesus has arrived there first. Wherever I go, Jesus is already there." The evaluator made no reply; he had no idea what to say, and the man was never offered the job. Was his response too theologically subtle? Jesus is not the Lord whom we discover or define or claim. Jesus comes to us. We do not summon Him by any action of our own. Jesus is God's gift. While we were yet sinners, he was born, died, and raised again for us that we might inherit new life.
Advent announces that Jesus is coming and not through any action of our own. We do not deserve it. Advent happens. Advent means that Jesus comes again and for all time, at Christmas, this Christmas.
33. You Must Watch!
Illustration
Mickey Anders
One morning in the early 1890s, four workers were busy in a cornfield. One man with a scythe was cutting the corn and leaving it in long swathes. He was followed by a boy who was making bands of twisted cornstalks and laying them on the ground at intervals, side by side. The third worker had a small wooden rake with three six-inch teeth on it, and with this he was gathering bundles of the cut corn, and placing each bundle on one of the bands left by the boys. The fourth worker, following the others, was making each bundle into a sheaf by twisting the band tightly round it and tucking in the end. At half-past ten, they stopped for a lunch break. They sat down and opened their lunch packets which contained sandwiches of home-fed cold bacon.
The boy looked at his food as it lay open on a cloth. He had been converted the night before at a chapel meeting, so he clasped his hands and closed his eyes to say grace. When he opened his eyes, his sandwiches WEREgone. The dog had taken them! The farmer had seen it all. Much amused, he said to the boy, "It is a good thing to pray but you must also watch!"
34. Walk Through the World Differently
Illustration
Daniel D. Chambers
October 19, 1989, 5:04 PM in San Francisco. When the Loma Prieta earthquake rumbled, my uncle was on the 32nd floor of a swaying high rise. Of course the phones went dead, so he couldn't call to make sure his daughter was safe. The elevators didn't work, so when the swaying building stood straight once again, he hiked down the stairwell to his car. Out on the street, the stoplights were not functioning whereupon he witnessed a rather amazing thing. People were not jamming the intersections with panic. Even though many were probably going home to make sure everybody was safe and to see what the damage was, the drivers were politely and courteously taking their turn, waiting, stopping, going; waiting, stopping, going. Nobody was cutting through. Nobody was leaning on their horn. At every intersection, it was as if everybody knew there was a crisis at hand, and they behaved very differently from an ordinary weekday after work.
And so the early church community walked through the world differently, as if on watch for the master's return, as if anticipating the next quake that would shake the foundations of their lives. The early church community and the Israelites in Babylon were bold enough to expect the greatness of God.
35. Jehovah's Witnesses Error
Illustration
Staff
In 1995 theJehovah's Witnesseschanged their minds. After warning for decades that the world would end within this present generation, the leaders of the sect announced in December 1995 that they have softened their position. As a spokesman explained, "Jesus said that 'this generation will not pass away' until a number of signs have taken place (Mark 13:30)."
They continued, and listen to this explanation, "When we reflected on the scriptures,we decided that he was talking about his generation rather than ours." Really? That's what you decided? You mean, you thought, that when Jesus said "This generation will not pass away until...," that that meant our generation and not his. You really thought that, for decades. You don't even need to know how to interpret the bible to understand that. It's basic grammar.
I'll now ask your forgivenessfor that bought of theological cynicism.
Ex-Witness James Fenton, professor emeritus at the University of Lethbridge in Alberta, Canada, is pleased by the change in doctrine. The Witnesses probably won't be knocking on our doors, he notes. The reason for their urgency no longer exists. Since the Jehovah's Witnesses have officially declared that the world probably will not end tomorrow, they will have a harder time motivating their members to ring more doorbells and gather more followers.
36. God Is Patient
Illustration
Stephen Muncherian
The Apostle Peter, writing shortly before he was martyred,during a time when
- Nero's persecution of the church was growing in severity
- false teaching was tearing at the heart of the church
- believers were beginning to doubt that Jesus was returning
- the question of the day was, "How can we continue to trust God?"
During this period of doubt and uncertainty, the Apostle Peter writes in 2 Peter, "Don't let this one fact escape your notice, beloved, that with the Lord one day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years like one day. The Lord is not slow about His promise, as some count slowness but God is patient toward you, not wishing for any to perish but for all to come to repentance."
37. Where Is Authority?
Illustration
Gerry Pierse
The British writer Arnold Lunn tells about one time he was on a boat trip when a certain lady was plaguing him with theological questions. He answered her with quotes from the Bible and from the teaching of the Church but the woman would not accept what he said. Then he interrupted her to say, "you must be a very inexperienced boat traveler. As you got on the boat I noticed that you put your left foot on board first. Everyone knows that you will have bad luck if you step on a boat with your left foot first!" The next time she came on board he noticed that she nearly tripped into the water in her effort to step aboard right foot first.
Lunn thought it remarkable that she would believe the infallible Lunn in something that he had just made up, and that she would not accept the authority of the Church or the words of Scripture. So, too, we tend to complicate our lives and our prayer by looking for the extraordinary, when the Lord is to be found most often in the simple and in the ordinary.
38. History Is Going Somewhere
Illustration
William Barclay
William Barclay wrote in his book The Mind of St. Paul:
"The great value of the doctrine of the Second Coming is that it guarantees that history is going somewhere. We cannot tell how it will happen. We cannot take as literal truth the Jewish pictures of it which Paul used. We need not think of a physical coming of Christ in the clouds, or a physical trumpet blast. But what the doctrine of the Second Coming conserves is the tremendous fact that there is one divine, far-off event to which the whole creation is moving; there is a consummation; there is a final triumph of God."
39. Christ Return - Watchfulness
Illustration
Phillip Yancy
There is a woman who is buried under a 150-year-old live oak trees in the cemetery of an Episcopal church in rural Louisiana. In accordance with this woman's instructions, only one word is carved on the tombstone: "Waiting."
40. If I Were The Devil
Illustration
Paul Harvey
If I were the devil, I would gain control of the most powerful nation in the world; I would delude the minds (of the people) into thinking that their power and prosperity had come from man's effort, instead of God's blessings; I would promote an attitude of loving things and using people, instead of the other way around; I would dupe entire states into relying on gambling for their main source of revenue; I would convince people that character is not an issue … I would make it legal to take the life of unborn babies; I would make it socially acceptable to take one's own life, and invent machines to make it convenient … I would take God out of the schools, where even the mention of His name was grounds for a lawsuit; I would come up with drugs that sedate the mind and target the young, and I would get sports heroes to advertise them; I would get control of the media, so that every night I could pollute the minds of every family member for my agenda; I would attack the family, the backbone of any nation … I would compel people to express their most depraved fantasies on canvas and movies screens, and I would call it art … I would convince the people that right and wrong are determined by a few who call themselves authorities and refer to their agendas as politically correct; I would persuade people that the church is irrelevant and out of date and that the Bible is for the naive. I would institutionalize the Church to the degree that her number one priority would be preservation of the institution, not preaching the Gospel of Jesus Christ... I would dull the minds of Christians, and make them believe that prayer is not important, and that faithfulness and obedience are optional, and that it really doesn't matter what you believe about God as long as you are sincere in your belief. I would....well, come to think of it, I would leave things pretty much the way they are now!
41. Do Not Let Him Find You Sleeping
Illustration
Brett Blair
Augustine, a man in the 5th century who became, Bishop of the church and a saint in history, originally lead a life of sin giving himself over to whatever pleasures presented themselves. His mother had earnestly prayed for him his entire life that he would give his life to the service of Christ, but Augustine persisted in his sins until one day he sat with a friend on a bench weeping over the state of his life. It was at this moment that he heard a boy or girl--he says he does not know which it was--singing a song. The sound was coming from a neighboring house. The child was chanting over and over: "Pick it up, read it; pick it up; read it."
Here is what happened next in Augustine's own words: "Immediately I ceased weeping and began most earnestly to think whether it was usual for children in some kind of game to sing such a song, but I could not remember ever having heard the like. So, damming the torrent of my tears, I got to my feet, for I could not but think that this was a divine command to open the Bible and read the first passage I should light upon. So I quickly returned to the bench where Alypius was sitting, for their I had put down the apostles book. I snatched it up, opened it, and in silence read the paragraph on which my eyes first fell: "Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh to fulfill the lust thereof." I wanted to read no further, nor did I need to. For instantly, as the sentence ended, there was infused in my heart something like the light of full certainty and all the gloom of doubt vanished away."
Had Christ come before that fateful day, Augustine would have been caught unprepared. He would have been found asleep. From that moment on, however, Augustine was prepared. He was on the alert! He had awakened from his sins.
42. Natural Disasters and The Second Coming
Illustration
Brett Blair
Some folk in Seattle were sure the end of the earth would come in the year 2000. Earthquakes. Floods, wars, and tornadoes will devastate the earth, they said, by the year 2001. They had planed to build an airship so they could escape. I wish I knew what these people are doing right now. Whatever good or ill lies ahead in life we need not worry about some human device to reassure us. In His own good time "the Lord shall descend from heaven with a shout" and "we which are alive shall he caught up to meet him in the air." We have nothing to fear, and the only preparation we need to make is to stay close to the Lord Jesus and keep our lives pure.
43. The Bedrock of Faith - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
Have you ever tried to make a prediction? Here are some predictions from the past. All from people who were trusted individuals:
"We don't like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out." Decca Recording Co. rejecting the Beatles, 1962.
Popular Mechanics magazine in 1949 made this prediction: "Where a calculator on the ENIAC is equipped with 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighs 30 tons, computers in the future may have only 1,000 vacuum tubes and weigh only 1.5 tons."
There was an inventor by the name of Lee DeForest. He claimed that "While theoretically and technically television may be feasible, commercially and financially it is an impossibility."
The Decca Recording Co. made a big mistake when they made this prediction: "We don't like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out." That was their prediction in 1962 concerning a few lads form Liverpool. Their band was called the Beatles.
As the disciples walked out of the Temple in Jerusalem Jesus paused, looked back at the Temple and predicted, "Do you see all these great buildings. Not one stone will be left on another." To the disciples this was bedrock. Nothing could bring down these walls. "Look, teacher! What massive stones! What magnificent buildings!" they said to Jesus.
The smallest stones in the structure weighed 2 to 3 tons. Many of them weighed 50 tons. The largest existing stone, part of the Wailing Wall, is 12 meters in length and 3 meters high, and it weighs hundreds of tons! The stones were so immense that neither mortar nor any other binding material was used between the stones. Their stability was attained by the great weight of the stones. The walls towered over Jerusalem, over 400 feet in one area. Inside the four walls was 45 acres of bedrock mountain shaved flat and during Jesus' day a quarter of a million people could fit comfortably within the structure. No sports structure in America today comes close.
You can then understand the disciples' surprise. As they walked down the Kidron Valley and up Mount Olive Peter, James, and John wanted to hear more. Jesus' prediction that a structure so immense would be leveled to the ground seemed implausible. But they pressed Jesus for more information. They wanted to know when. What would be the sign that this was about to take place? In their voice was fear. Fear of the unknown. Fear that their lives were about to change forever. Jesus had not made any predictions like this one. This was different. This, they could understand.
Forty years later Jesus' prediction came true. In 70 AD the Temple was destroyed by Rome. What are we to learn from this prediction and its fulfillment?
1. The bedrock of faith is not in Temples.
2. The bedrock of faith is not in Signs.
3. The bedrock of faith is in Christ.
44. Gollum's Riddle
Illustration
Brett Blair
In the Hobbit by JRR Tolkein Bilbo Baggins has met Gollum for the first time. Bilbo is lost and needs to find his way out of Gollum's cave. Gollum will show him the way out if he can answer a riddle.
This thing all things devours,
Birds, beasts, trees, flowers;
Gnaws iron, bites steel;
Grinds hard stone to meal;|
Slays king, ruins town,
And beats high mountain down.
Bilbo is stumped. He doesn't know the answer to the riddle and after being pressured by Gollum says, "Give me time." Gollum hears the word "time" and mistakenly takes it as Bilbos answer, which of course is right. Time devours all things, even massive Temples.
45. Enough
Illustration
King Duncan
Gregory L. Fisher in Leadership magazine tells of teaching a class at the West African Bible College. One day the class was discussing the Second Coming of Christ. A student asked Fisher a question that took him by surprise. The question was this: "What will he say when he shouts?"
The student said, "Reverend, 1 Thessalonians 4:16 says that Christ will descend from heaven with a loud command. I would like to know what that command will be."
Fisher wanted to leave the question unanswered, to tell the student that they must not go past what Scripture has revealed, but his mind wandered to an encounter he had earlier in the day with a refugee from the Liberian civil war. The man, a high school principal, told him how he was apprehended by a two‑man death squad. After several hours of terror, as the men described how they would torture and kill him, he narrowly escaped. After hiding in the bush for two days, he was able to find his family and escape to a neighboring country. The escape cost him dearly: two of his children lost their lives. The stark cruelty unleashed on an unsuspecting, undeserving population had touched Fisher deeply. He also saw flashbacks of the beggars that he passed each morning on his way to the office. Every day he saw how poverty destroys dignity, robs people of the best of what it means to be human, and sometimes substitutes the worst of what it means to be an animal. Fisher says even now he is haunted by the vacant eyes of people who have lost all hope.
"Reverend, you have not given me an answer," the student demanded. "What will [Christ] say?"
The question hadn't gone away. "Enough," Fisher said in answer to the question. "He will shout, Enough! when he returns."
A look of surprise opened the face of the student. "What do you mean, enough?" And Fisher said firmly, "Enough suffering. Enough starvation. Enough terror. Enough death. Enough indignity. Enough lives trapped in hopelessness. Enough sickness and disease. Enough time. ENOUGH!"
46. Someday God Will Come
Illustration
King Duncan
In her book, Out of Africa, Isak Dinesen tells about her cook, a Kenyan named Kamante. She says that one night, after midnight, Kamante suddenly walked into her bedroom with a hurricane-lamp in his hand. He spoke to her very solemnly, "I think that you had better get up. I think that God is coming."
Isak Dinesen says that when she heard this, she did get up, and asked why he thought so. He gravely led her into the dining room which looked west, toward the hills. Through her windows she saw a strange phenomenon. There was a big grass-fire going on out in the hills. The grass was burning all the way from the hill-top to the plain. When seen from the house, she says, it made nearly a vertical line. It did indeed look as if some gigantic figure was moving and coming toward them. She stood for some time and looked at it, with Kamante watching by her side. Then she began to explain to him what was happening. But the explanation didn't seem to make much impression on him. She says he clearly took his mission to have been fulfilled when he had called her to warn her.
"Well yes," he said, "it may be so. But I thought that you had better get up in case it was God coming."
Well, someday God will come. We don't know when. But of even more relevance to each of us, there will come a time when God will come for us personally. Maybe you would like to know when that time will be. Most of us, I suspect, would rather not know. It would be too heavy a burden to bear. We would prefer to leave such things to God.
47. Just Stay in the Race
Illustration
King Duncan
Mary Hollingsworth tells a story about the noted director of biblical epics, Cecil B. DeMille. When they began working on the movie Ben Hur, DeMille talked to Charlton Heston the star of the movie about the all-important chariot race at the end. He decided Heston should actually learn to drive the chariot himself, rather than just using a stunt double. Heston agreed to take chariot-driving lessons to make the movie as authentic as possible.
Learning to drive a chariot with horses four abreast, however, was no small matter. After extensive work and days of practice, Heston returned to the movie set and reported to DeMille.
"I think I can drive the chariot all right, Cecil," said Heston, "but I'm not at all sure I can actually win the race."
Smiling slightly, DeMille said, "Heston, you just stay in the race, and I'll make sure you win."
Those are the words of God to everyone through a time of tumultuous change: "John, Mary, Heather, you just stay in the race, and I'll make sure you win." Look for God's hand. If you cannot see it in the event itself, look for it in the aftermath when you are putting your life back together. I promise you, God's hand will be there.
48. Working and Waiting
Illustration
King Duncan
When we wait, we admit there are some things that are not under our control. Most of us like to believe that we are in control. We imagine that we are masters of our destinies. If we work hard enough, if we are sufficiently prepared, if we just concentrate, we can make life work. And we can. To a point. There are some things, however, that can't be hurried. Recuperation from surgery, the grief process, a young person learning responsibility.
Shakespeare put it like this, "How poor are they that have no patience. What wound did ever heal but by degrees?"
John R. Claypool has wisely said, "Let's face it, there are two kinds of reality in this world of ours. There are the things you have to work for, and there are the things you have to wait for." Claypool is right. But we don't want to wait.
49. The Cross Sends Us
Illustration
John M. Braaten
A father overheard his two sons playing church. One of them was explaining to the other what all the parts of the liturgy were about. "Do you know what it means at the end of the service when the pastor does this?" he asked, making the sign of the cross. "It means some of you go out this way, and some of you go out that way."
The lad was right. The cross sends us and scatters us out into the world. Someone has said that the really important thing for any church is not how many it seats but how many it sends, with a strange-looking power, the greatest power the world has known, the power of suffering love. So we are sent, you and I, sent to live out our Lord's kind of whimsical and yet lavish grace and with the glory of being marked with the cross, a strange-looking glory sought by few, but which is glory indeed.
50. We Can't Contain God In Our Cups!
Illustration
Zan W. Holmes
One morning a little girl sat at a kitchen table to eat breakfast with her mother and father. As she listened to the prayer her father prayed before the meal, she was especially intrigued that he thanked God for God's presence everywhere.
After the father finished his prayer the little girl asked him, "Father, is it really true that God is everywhere?"
"Yes," said her father.
"Is God in this house?" she asked.
"Yes," her father said.
"Is God in this kitchen?"
"Yes," her father said.
"Is God on this table?" she asked.
"Yes," her father said.
The little girl hesitated and then asked, "Is God in this cup?"
Her father said, "Yes."
Upon hearing this the little girl quickly covered the cup with her hand and exclaimed, "I've got Him!"
In Job's attempt to make some sense out of his suffering, he tried desperately to figure God out by confining God to his own narrow conception of God. In other words, Job was trying to get God to respond within the limited confines of Job's own theological cup. In fact, Job was so certain of his theology that he believed he would prevail if his case were presented before God. To be sure, this is why he wanted to find God. He said, "Would he contend with me in the greatness of his power? No; but he would give heed to me. There an upright person could reason with him, and I should be acquitted forever by my judge" (Job 23:6-7).
Finally in chapter 38 God appears before Job as a voice out of the whirlwind: Who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge? Gird up your loins like a man, I will question you, and you shall declare to me. Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding. Who determined its measurements -- surely you know! Or who stretched the line upon it? On what were its bases sunk, or who laid its cornerstone when the morning stars sang together and all the heavenly beings shouted for joy? -- Job 38:2-7
As soon as God speaks, Job realizes that he can never have the luxury of saying: "I've got God!" Indeed Job now knows that God has exceeded Job's expectations and refuses to be contained and fit neatly into any theological box that Job has constructed. So God answers Job, but not according to Job's definition of the problem of suffering. Instead God transposes the issue to another level which emphasizes God's power and divine knowledge in contrast to the human weakness and ignorance of Job.[1] In response, Job now realizes how foolish he has been to propose that he understood everything that happens. In fact, Job answers God and says, "See, I am of small account; what shall I answer you? I lay my hand on my mouth. I have spoken once, and I will not answer; twice, but will proceed no further" (Job 40:4-5).
No longer does Job seek to arrange a debate where he can instruct God. He finally realizes that it is he and not God who is unaware of life's complete picture. When we too are tempted to believe that God is bound by our theologies, rituals, denominations, and traditions, like Job, we are called to remember that God is boundless and cannot be contained in any of our cups. We cannot put God in the cup of any ritual and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in the cup of any theology and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in the cup of any church tradition and say, "I've got God covered." We cannot put God in any ethnic or gender cup and say, "I've got God covered."
Job learned that God stands above all human systems and wisdom. The purpose behind it all is not to answer directly the problem of suffering, but to give Job a vision of God's glory and presence with Job in the midst of Job's suffering. Thus Job discovers that he can trust God's purposes even though he cannot clearly understand them. Indeed, he comes to see that his new relationship with God will sustain him in the midst of his suffering.
Our African American forefathers and foremothers in the midst of the suffering of slavery could identify with Job's predicament. Even in the face of sorrow and suffering in the absurdity of slavery they were able to sing praises to God through the spirituals. Even though their relationship with God did not bring an immediate end to their oppressive condition, they were sustained by the faith that the cup of slavery could not contain the God of their hope and liberation. By the grace of God, it was a faith that enabled them to sing: Nobody knows the trouble I see, Nobody knows but Jesus. Nobody knows the trouble I see, Glory, Hallelujah.
1. Beverly B. Gaventa, editor, Texts for Preaching, (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993), p. 551. "
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