Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Egypt is one of the earliest ancient civilizations. The first development of writing took place simultaneously in both Egypt and ancient Sumer around 3000 BC.

Ancient Sumer and Egypt were river valley cultures. Sumer was located in Mesopotamia (southeast Iraq), Egypt in the Nile Valley (northeast Africa). The Nile Valley was well suited for long-term growth and cultural success for three reasons. First, the annual flooding of the Nile (July to October) brought sediment and nutrients from up river to the fields of the Nile Valley. The water also washed the salts out of the soil. These brought great fertility to the valley and allowed the same fields to be farmed year after year for millennia without exhausting the land. Second, the Nile provided a central highway for transporting people and goods across Egypt, thus facilitating internal trade and communication. Third, Egypt was surrounded by a buffer zone of desert regions to the east, west, and south, which hindered foreign invasion. Ancient Egyptians called the fertile land of the Nile Valley the “black land” and the desert regions the “red land.” They also divided the land into “upper” and “lower” Egypt. Upper Egypt (from the first cataract northward to Memphis) was in the higher southern elevations of the Nile River (the Nile flows from south to north). Lower Egypt was made up of the Nile Delta region. Only a pharaoh who controlled and unified both could take the epithet “king of upper and lower Egypt.”

Egypt had an ancient and long history, but the following summary will only address Egypt as it comes into contact with biblical history.

First Intermediate period (21342040 BC) and Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC). After the death of PepyII came economic collapse due to drought and falling tax revenues. These led to political collapse, and power was split among many competing factions. This time of instability is known as the First Intermediate period; it ended when the Eleventh Dynasty pharaoh MentuhotepII reunified Egypt and reestablished a strong central government. It is likely around the time of the end of the First Intermediate period (2134–2040 BC) and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC) that Abraham visited Egypt and later Joseph, Jacob, and his family entered Egypt. The famous Beni Hasan tomb painting of this period shows a caravan of Semitic peoples moving into Egypt, wearing multicolored clothing. In this period the position of vizier (prime minister) grew to prominence. One vizier, Amenemhet, succeeded to the throne of Egypt. Joseph filled the role of vizier in the biblical account (Gen. 41:39–40). Also dating from this period are turquoise mines in the Sinai region that have the earliest known Semitic inscription. Written on the mine walls in Proto-Sinaitic, this inscription may be the earliest alphabetic script in existence.

Second Intermediate period (1640–1550 BC). At the end of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt again fell into a fractured political situation with the decline of the pharaoh’s power. A Semitic people, the Hyksos (Egyptian for “foreign rulers” or “shepherd kings”), invaded the Nile Delta region and established their capital at Avaris. The Seventeenth Dynasty continued to rule Upper Egypt in the south while the Hyksos were in power. Although the Israelites were servants of Pharaoh from the beginning (keeping his flocks), they were not enslaved until later. It may have been a Hyksos pharaoh or a New Kingdom pharaoh who enslaved them to hard labor.

New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC). The last king of the Seventeenth (Theban) Dynasty, Kamose, attacked the Hyksos, but it was his successor, Ahmose, who drove them out and reunified Egypt. Ahmose is considered the first pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. It may have been Ahmose or one of his successors who enslaved the Hebrews. During the first half of the New Kingdom, Egypt was at the height of its power and wealth. During this period Egyptians began to call their king “Pharaoh,” meaning “great house.” The Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh ThutmoseIII and his son AmenhotepII are good candidates for an early-date exodus (c. 1446 BC). A later king of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Akhenaten, moved the capital to Amarna and shifted his allegiance from Amun-Re, the sun god, to sole worship of the god Aton (sun-disk). For this reason, many identify him as the first monotheist. Akhenaten may have made this move in order to defund the temples and priestly orders that had grown very wealthy and powerful over time. His reforms did not last, and the worship of Amun-Re was restored by his successor, Tutankhamen. The Nineteenth Dynasty warrior RamessesII is the likely pharaoh of a late-date Exodus (c. 1250 BC).

Third Intermediate period (1069–664 BC). This period was a time of weak and divided government, with capitals in the north and the south. Pharaoh Siamun has been conjectured to be King Solomon’s father-in-law, who conquered Gezer and gave it to Solomon as a dowry (c. 960 BC; 1Kings 9:16). Later, Sheshonq (biblical Shishak), a Libyan pharaoh of the Twenty-second Dynasty, came to the throne and campaigned against Solomon’s son Rehoboam, plundering Jerusalem in the process (1Kings 14:25; 2Chron. 12:2; cf. 1Kings 11:40). The African Cush*te pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (760–664 BC) ruled the north for a little more than a century but failed to defend against the waves of Assyrian conquest in the seventh century BC.

Late Kingdom period (664–525 BC). The Twenty-sixth (Saite) Dynasty (ruling from the Delta city of Sais) reunified Egypt under native Egyptian control. Pharaoh NechoII tried to support a declining Assyria as a buffer against the Babylonian onslaught but was unsuccessful (c. 609 BC). However, in the process Necho killed King Josiah of Judah in battle at Megiddo and placed one of Josiah’s sons, Jehoiakim, as a vassal upon the throne of Judah (2Kings 23:29–35; cf. 2Chron. 35:20–36:8; Jer. 46:2). After the Babylonian destruction of Judah/Jerusalem (587/586 BC) and the murder of their Jewish governor, Gedaliah, a group of Jewish exiles fled to Egypt. This group forced the prophet Jeremiah to go with them to Egypt (Jer. 40:1–43:7). A small group of Jewish exiles eventually found their way to a tiny island in the upper Nile, Elephantine, where they established a temple and community; there they worked as mercenaries.

Persian period (525–332 BC). CambysesII, king of Persia and son of Cyrus the Great, conquered Egypt in 525 BC. His successor, DariusI, ruled Egypt benevolently and resumed the construction of temples and canals. However, Egypt revolted against Persian rule several times, ultimately winning independence in 404 BC with the help of Greek allies. The last native Egyptian pharaoh was NectaneboII, who ruled in 359–343 BC. However, this period of Egyptian independence was short-lived, with Persia reestablishing control in 343 BC.

Hellenistic-Roman period (332–30 BC; 30 BC and beyond). Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC. After Alexander’s death, his general Ptolemy took control of Egypt and ruled as pharaoh. From Alexander’s conquest to the death of Cleopatra, Egyptian rulers were of Greek descent. After Cleopatra’s death (30 BC), Rome annexed Egypt into its empire and governed the country until the fall of the Roman Empire. A large contingent of Jews lived and prospered in the Delta city of Alexandria in this period.

The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.

Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).

Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).

Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).

With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).

God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).

A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).

While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.

The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).

The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).

God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.

For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and the redeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historical acts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, and especially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only one God (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because “God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himself through various images and metaphors.

The OT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used for God, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”), often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el ’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“God Almighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who sees me” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive names reveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from the personal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings; thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.

The most prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which is translated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At the burning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moses his personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am” (Exod. 3:1315). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH” seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh, who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the God who was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’ testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living” (Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tied to God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life.

Many of God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “The Lord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands, and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leave the guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”

The Christian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but exists in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spirit is one with God (2Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the same divine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called “Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1; 20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1Cor. 8:6; 2Cor. 3:17–18; 2Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work of creation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1Pet. 1:2), indwelling (John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).

The central city and capital of ancient Israel. Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.

The name “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT, particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140 times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’s dealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:115; 26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag. 2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NT authors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal. 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).

Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, since the only water source is the Gihon spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.

Media was a country located to the south of the Caspian Sea, to the east of the Tigris River and Zagros Mountains, to the west of Parthia, and to the north of Elam. The northern portion of the modern country of Iran occupies the same area, although at the height of Media’s power, the kingdom included parts of modern-day Iraq and Turkey. The best-known city was Ecbatana. The people of Media, the Medes, lived on the steppes and were known among the neighboring countries for their excellent horses.

The Medes and Media figure most prominently in the biblical books of Daniel and Esther. Daniel began his exile and rise to fame under the Babylonians but finished his prophetic career under the rule of the Medo-Persian Empire. Both Daniel and other prophets foresaw this change of governance and the Medes’ part in the conquest of Babylon (Isa. 13:17; 21:2; Jer. 51:11, 28; Dan. 5:28). The importance of the Median contribution to the culture and governance of the new empire is manifest in the fact that the Medo-Persian ruler Darius is called “the Mede” in Dan. 11:1 due to his mixed ancestry (cf. Dan. 9:1). Indeed, the idea that an established law could not be changed even by the king himself (cf. Esther 1:19) seems to be a Median contribution to the empire and was the political tool used by Daniel’s enemies to have him thrown into the lions’ den (Dan. 6:8, 12).

Many of the exiled Jews from Judah chose to settle in Media instead of return to Judah, and a portion of their story is recounted in the book of Esther. Esther 1:3 notes that “the military leaders of Persia and Media” were among those present at a great feast of Ahasuerus (XerxesI). Similarly, in Esther 1:14 the king’s closest advisers are labeled “nobles of Persia and Media,” indicating the unity of the two countries and the cultural mix among the high officials. The same was true of the high-ranking women in the land (Esther 1:18).

Jews from Media who recognized the Median language being spoken by the Spirit-filled disciples are mentioned in Acts 2:9. Thus, although the country had ceased to be a dominant power in the world, its language and culture were still present during the NT period.

Rome began as a city-state but soon became a transcontinental empire reaching over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Rome emerged as the most dominant force in the Mediterranean after it defeated Carthage in the Second Punic War (218201 BC). Thereafter, Rome began to expand its control and power over the various Hellenistic city-states in the east, including Macedonia, Illyria, and Asia Minor. By the mid-first century AD, Rome had also conquered or annexed Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrene, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and Armenia.

The transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire took place under the Roman emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), who, after crossing the Rubicon and defeating Pompey, was proclaimed dictator perpetuus (“dictator for life”). The period after Julius Caesar’s assassination (44 BC) was a time of political upheaval as Rome was marred by a series of civil wars. The first was between Octavius and Antony against Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. This climaxed in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), which the former allies of Julius Caesar won. The second was between Octavius and Antony, where Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leaving Octavius as the undisputed leader of Rome.

Octavius was given the honorific name “Augustus” by the senate. His reign (31 BC–AD 14) marked a period of consolidation, reorganization, and renewal of the Roman Empire. Augustus embarked on an empire-wide policy of fiscal rationalization, developed a constitutional settlement for Rome, centralized his military authority over the various provinces, and had Julius Caesar deified. What is most significant about Augustus is that it is with his reign that the Roman Empire essentially began. He was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1).

Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted heir, reigned in the years AD 14–37. He was a highly successful military general, but as emperor he was remembered as being gloomy and melancholic. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus conducted his ministry in Palestine.

Tiberius was succeeded by his adopted grandson Caligula, who reigned in the years AD 37–41. Caligula was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicus, who died in Antioch in AD 19. Historical sources are not favorably disposed toward Caligula, who was remembered as a malevolent tyrant given to self-aggrandizement and sexual perversity. In AD 39/40 Caligula departed from imperial policy that permitted emperor worship in the east and veneration of deceased emperors in Rome, and he often appeared dressed as a god in public and demanded worship as a living god. During this time he deposed Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, on suspicion of consorting with Parthia (Josephus, Ant. 18.7). Caligula also ordered that his statue be placed in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (Philo, Embassy 203). Petronius, the governor of Syria, knowing that such an act would lead to civil war, refused to comply and appealed to Caligula to reverse the order. In response, Caligula sent an order to Petronius that he commit suicide. Fortunately, news of Caligula’s assassination by a conspiracy involving the praetorian guard and senators reached Petronius first.

Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, reigned in the years AD 41–54, and his rule was defined by numerous public works, a reordering of the judicial system, a torrid series of marriages, the conquest of Britain, and a number of attempted coups by the Roman senate. In AD 49 he expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about a certain “Chrestus,” probably Christ (cf. Acts 18:2). No one is sure whether Claudius was murdered or died of old age, but he remained a sharp contrast to the brutal excesses of Caligula and Nero.

Nero, the stepson of Claudius, reigned in the years AD 54–68. The early period of his rule was marked by cultural endeavors and diplomatic efforts. The later years were, in contrast, distinguished by tyranny and self-aggrandizement. There was a Jewish revolt against Rome in Judea (AD 66–70) during Nero’s reign, and Vespasian was sent to pacify the territory. According to ancient sources, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire of Rome in AD 64 and subjected them to the cruelest of punishments, including crucifixion, being thrown to wild animals, and even being burned alive. It probably was during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. Nero eventually was declared a public enemy by the Roman senate, and he committed suicide before he could be captured in AD 68. There arose a “Nero redivivus” legend, whereby many hoped or feared that Nero had not died in AD 68 but had fled to Parthia and would return to Rome in order to destroy it (Sib.Or. 4.119–24; 5.137–41, 361–96), and this arguably stands behind the imagery of Rev. 13:3; 17:8–11.

The suicide of Nero left a power vacuum in Rome, and AD 69 saw no less than four emperors ascend the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. Galba was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis and was invited to become emperor by the senate, but he was killed by the praetorian guard after they were bribed by the praetor Otho. Otho himself committed suicide after his forces were defeated by Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the Rhine. Vitellius became emperor, but he was fiscally irresponsible and murdered many of his rivals. The legions in the Danube, Egypt, Syria, and Judea had declared Vespasian emperor and marched on Rome. Vespasian controlled the grain supplies to Rome from Egypt and had a superior force. Vitellius’s forces were defeated at Bedriacum, and Vitellius went into hiding but eventually was killed in Rome. Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate, and so began the Flavian dynasty, which restored order after the chaos of civil war.

The Flavians ruled in the years AD 69–96. Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) consolidated the empire after its year of strife and instituted new taxes, such as the fiscus judaicus, a war reparation tax placed on all Jews and paid to the temple of Jupiter in lieu of the Jerusalem temple tax. Vespasian was succeeded by his sons Titus (r. AD 79–81) and Domitian (r. AD 81–96). When Vespasian sailed to Rome from Judea, Titus was left in charge of the siege of Jerusalem, which he completed and celebrated in a triumph in Rome in AD 72. This triumph is memorialized in the Arch of Titus, which depicts Roman soldiers bringing the vessels of the temple to Rome as part of the booty taken. Later Roman writers regarded Domitian as a malevolent and malicious tyrant (e.g., Tacitus, Suetonius), but this probably is an exaggeration caused partly by a desire to highlight the greatness of succeeding emperors such as Nerva and Trajan. It probably was during the reign of Domitian that some Christians in Asia Minor were being persecuted for their failure to worship the emperor, as depicted in the book of Revelation.

The birth of the church and the growth of Christianity took place within the wider social, religious, and cultural context of the Greco-Roman world. The politics and power of the Roman Empire provide the backdrop for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1), and since Rome was considered to be the center of the world, it was necessary that Paul himself testify to Jesus Christ there (Acts 19:21). The history, literature, and cultural background of Rome form an important background to the NT and should be studied along with the history and literature of Judaism during the time of Jesus and the apostles. Although the Romans were the primary threat to the survival of Christians in the ancient world, after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century AD, they became the primary means by which Christianity spread to the rest of Europe and western Asia.

In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.

The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.

The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).

The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).

According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).

Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).

The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arranged and sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3), miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanical universe. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed to overcome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of the existence of God (Mark 8:11 12). Still less are they clever conjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can be otherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in his infinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things to call attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinely ordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence of his glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptive history.

In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are found in greater number during times of great redemptive significance, such as the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performed also during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of the ninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of these eras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God over pagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).

In the NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantly they attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) and the saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the Synoptic Gospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and the conquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30; Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiah of OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preference for the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured around them (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesus performed were such that only the one who stood in a unique relationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naive credulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, false prophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even the elect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernment and not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

The relationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward as sometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nor does faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended to bring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), but not all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesus regarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious (Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than no faith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find its grounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

It is also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in those who came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberately limited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5), many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could not exercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke 14:1–4).

The fact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, his opponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Arguments about his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles but to the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

The Bible has much to say about works, and an understanding of the topic is important because works play a role in most religions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers to the products or activities of human moral agents in the context of religious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned in Scripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen. 2:23; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104; Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Human works, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works, though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usually reflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous, just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moral character of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).

Important questions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality. Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good works save at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus, “What must we do to do the works God requires?” he answered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one he has sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb. 11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NT and often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly good works. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom. 9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even if considered “good” by human standards, are not commendable to God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person is righteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Works cannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9; 2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic law are not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Good works follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess. 1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who have faith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related to rewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf. Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).

The outpouring of the Spirit that was prophesied in the OT totake place in the last days, in connection with the arrival of theMessiah.

Spiritbaptism in the Bible.The OT prophets had spoken of both the Spirit of God coming upon theMessiah (e.g., Isa. 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and a giving or pouring out ofthe Spirit in the last days (e.g., Isa. 32:15; 44:3; Ezek. 36:27;37:14; 39:29; Joel 2:28). Peter connects the giving of the Spiritwith Jesus’ being received by the Father and being grantedmessianic authority (Acts 2:33–38). The experience of Corneliusin particular associates the pouring out of the Spirit (Acts 10:45)with a baptism with the Spirit (11:16).

Sevenpassages in the NT directly speak of someone being baptized in/withthe Spirit. Four of these passages refer to John the Baptist’sprediction that Jesus will baptize people in/with the Spirit incontrast to his own water baptism (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:16;John 1:33). In Matthew and Luke, Jesus’ baptism is referred toas a baptism with the Holy Spirit and with fire. Two passages referto Jesus’ prediction that the disciples would receive Spiritbaptism, which occurred at Pentecost. As recorded in Acts 2, tonguesof fire came to rest on each of them, they were filled with the HolySpirit, and they began to speak in other tongues. As the disciplesspoke to the Jews who had gathered in Jerusalem for the festival,three thousand were converted. Acts 1:5 contains Jesus’prediction of this baptism with the Spirit, which Peter recounts in11:16.

Thefinal reference occurs in 1 Cor. 12:13, where Paul says, “Forwe were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body—whetherJews or Gentiles, slave or free—and we were all given the oneSpirit to drink.” Thus, Christians form one body through theircommon experience of immersion in the one Spirit.

Asecond baptism?Whilein 1 Cor. 12 Paul seems to refer to an experience that allChristians undergo at conversion, there are several incidents in Actswhere the reception of the Spirit occurs after conversion. Thequestion then arises as to whether there is a separate “baptismin/with the Holy Spirit” distinct from the Spirit’sinitial work of regeneration and incorporation into the body ofChrist at conversion and whether this two-stage process is normativefor the church. This belief in a second baptism is particularlyprominent in Pentecostal traditions.

Examplessuch as Acts 2; 8; 10; 19 are commonly used to support the view of asecond and subsequent experience of Spirit baptism. In Acts 2 thedisciples are already converted and wait for the Spirit, who comes tothem at Pentecost. In Acts 8 the Samaritans first respond to Philip’spreaching and receive water baptism. However, they receive the Spiritonly after Peter and John come from Jerusalem and pray for them toreceive the Holy Spirit. In Acts 10 Cornelius is a God-fearingGentile, and after Peter visits him, the Spirit falls on hishousehold. In Acts 19 Paul finds some disciples in Ephesus. After helays hands on them, the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and they beginto speak in tongues and prophesy.

Inunderstanding these experiences, it must be remembered that Actsdescribes a transitional period for the church. Acts 2 in particularrecounts the initial giving of the Spirit under the new covenant. Itis possible, then, to see the events in Acts 8; 10 as the coming ofthe Spirit upon two other people groups, the Samaritans and theGentiles. Acts 2:38 and 5:32 indicate that the apostles expected thereception of the Spirit to accompany conversion, and this appears tobe the case in the rest of the book. Acts 19 narrates anincomplete conversion, where the people had only experienced John’sbaptism and receive the Spirit after Paul baptizes them “in thename of the Lord Jesus.”

Filledwith the Spirit.Although the NT does not support a theology of a second Spiritbaptism, it does commonly mention an experience of being “filled”with the Spirit. The concept of being “filled with the Spirit”frequently occurs in contexts referring to spiritual growth, such asin Eph. 5:18, where Paul exhorts, “Do not get drunk on wine,which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit.”Apparently, this filling can occur numerous times. It can lead toworship of and thanksgiving to God (Eph. 5:19–20). It can alsoresult in empowerment for ministry.

Theimmediate consequence of the disciples’ filling in Acts 2:4 isspeaking in tongues to the various Jews gathered in Jerusalem, and in4:31 they are empowered to speak “the word of God boldly.”Fullness of the Spirit can also be a characteristic of a believer’slife, such as in Acts 6:3, where the seven men chosen to look afterthe widows were to be men “known to be full of the Spirit.”

Human Uses and Metaphors

Fire is a basic necessity for various human activities such as cooking (Exod. 12:8; Isa. 44:15–16, 19; John 21:9), warming (Isa. 44:16; Jer. 36:22; John 18:18), lighting (Isa. 50:11), manufacturing (Exod. 32:24), and refining metals (Num. 31:22–23). Fire is also an important means of maintaining the purity of God’s people, used to punish sinners (the sexually immoral [Lev. 20:14; 21:9; cf. Gen. 38:24] and the disobedient [Josh. 7:25; cf. 2Kings 23:16]) and to destroy idols (Exod. 32:20; Deut. 7:5, 25; 2Kings 10:26), chariots (Josh. 11:6, 9), and the cities of Canaan (Josh. 6:24; 8:19; 11:11; Judg. 18:27). As an essential means of worship, fire is used to burn sacrificial animals (Gen. 8:20; Exod. 29:18; Lev. 1:9; 3:3; 9:10, 13–14, 20) and grain offerings (Lev. 2:2, 9; 9:17).

The Mosaic law has several regulations concerning fire. Regarded as work, starting a fire is forbidden on the Sabbath (Exod. 35:3). It is the responsibility of the priests to keep the fire burning on the altar (Lev. 6:9, 12–13). The use of an “unauthorized fire” for sacrifice is forbidden (note Nadab and Abihu’s death [Lev. 10:1–2; cf. Num. 3:4; 26:61; 1Chron. 24:2]). Also, contrary to the Canaanite religious custom, burning children is forbidden (Deut. 18:10), though the Israelites failed to keep this command and elicited God’s judgment (2Kings 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; Jer. 7:31; 32:35; note Josiah’s ban in 2Kings 23:10).

As a metaphor, fire also signifies human anger (Ps. 39:3), wickedness (Isa. 9:18), self-reliance (Isa. 50:11), evil planning (Hos. 7:6–7), lust (Prov. 6:27–28), evil speech or tongue (Prov. 16:27; James 3:5–6), and, paradoxically, kindness to an enemy (Prov. 25:22; Rom. 12:20).

Divine Uses and Metaphors

In the Bible, God is described as the ruler of fire (Ps. 104:4; cf. 1Kings 18). Positively, God sends fire to signify his acceptance of worship (Lev. 9:24; Judg. 13:19–20; 1Kings 18:38; 2Chron. 7:1–3; cf. Luke 9:54). God also purifies his people by fire in order to provide them with abundance (Ps. 66:12), to cleanse them of their sins (Isa. 6:6–7), to refine them into the true remnant (Zech. 13:9), to restore true worship (Mal. 3:2–3), to bring forth genuine faith (1Cor. 3:13, 15; 1Pet. 1:7), and to give Christians a true joy of participating in Christ’s suffering (1Pet. 4:12). God also promises to make his people like a firepot and a flaming torch that will burn the surrounding enemies (Zech. 12:6). Negatively, God uses fire to punish the wicked and disobedient (Gen. 19:24; Exod. 9:23; Num. 11:1; 16:35; 2Kings 1:10, 12; Isa. 29:6; 34:9–10; 66:24; Ezek. 38:22; 39:6; Rev. 20:9). God is a farmer burning unfruitful trees (John 15:2, 6; cf. Matt. 3:10; 7:19; 13:40) and “thorns and briers” (Isa. 10:17). The eternal fire of hell is the place where God’s final judgment will be executed (Matt. 5:22; 25:41; Mark 9:45–49; Jude 1:7; note the “lake of fire” in Rev. 20:14–15; cf. 14:10; 21:8).

Fire is also a symbol used to image the indescribable God. It symbolizes God’s presence: a smoking firepot with a flaming torch (Gen. 15:17), the burning bush (Exod. 3:2; cf. Elijah’s expectation [1Kings 19:12]), the pillars of fire and smoke (Exod. 13:21–22; Num. 14:14), the smoke on Mount Sinai and in the tabernacle and the temple (Exod. 19:19; Num. 9:15–16; Deut. 4:11–12; Isa. 6:4). Fire marks God’s protection: the “horses and chariots of fire” (2Kings 6:17; cf. 2:11), the “wall of fire” (Zech. 2:5). Fire also represents God’s glory: God’s throne (Dan. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 1:4, 13; 10:2, 6–7), God’s form (Ezek. 1:27), the seven spirits of God before the throne (Rev. 4:5). God in his holy wrath is also likened to a burning fire (Pss. 79:5; 89:46; Isa. 5:24; 33:14; Jer. 15:14; Ezek. 21:31; 22:21; Hos. 8:5; note the expression “consuming fire” [Deut. 4:24; Isa. 33:14; Heb. 12:29]) and even to a fiery monster (Ps. 18:8; Isa. 30:33; 65:5; cf. Job 41:19–21). Fire is an important element in the description of the day of the Lord (Joel 2:3; cf. 2Pet. 3:12). God’s words in the prophet’s mouth are likened to a fire (Jer. 5:14; 20:9; 23:29).

Fire is also used to speak of Jesus. John the Baptist refers to Jesus’ baptism as one with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. 3:11). Jesus identifies the purpose of his coming as casting fire on earth (Luke 12:49). The returning Jesus is portrayed as coming in “blazing fire” (2Thess. 1:7), and the eyes of the glorified Christ are likened to “blazing fire” (Rev. 1:14; 2:18; cf. “flaming torches” in Dan. 10:6). In Acts 2:3 the Holy Spirit is portrayed as the “tongues of fire.”

Media was a country located to the south of the Caspian Sea,to the east of the Tigris River and Zagros Mountains, to the west ofParthia, and to the north of Elam. The northern portion of the moderncountry of Iran occupies the same area, although at the height ofMedia’s power, the kingdom included parts of modern-day Iraqand Turkey. The best-known city was Ecbatana. The people of Media,the Medes, lived on the steppes and were known among the neighboringcountries for their excellent horses.

Historyof Media.A people called the “Madai,” an Indo-Aryan groupdescended from Japheth, gave their name to the region (Gen. 10:2).Historically, Media appears on the scene in the records of theAssyrian monarch ShalmaneserIII, who claims to have invadedMedia in the ninth century BC. Other Assyrian monarchs listed theMedes among the peoples who paid tribute to and traded with theAssyrian Empire. The relationship between the two countries was neverentirely friendly, and the Assyrian monarchs Tiglath-pileserIII(r. 744–727 BC) and SargonII (r. 721–705 BC)invaded Media and forcibly added parts of the country to the AssyrianEmpire and made them pay tribute. These subjugated provinces were nodoubt the parts of Media to which SargonII sent some of theexiles after he conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722/721BC (2Kings 17:6; 18:11).

AfterSargonII, Sennacherib continued to keep the Medes insubmission. Yet the Medes were not beaten. They became more powerful,and in an alliance with the Scythians and the Babylonians theyrebelled against their Assyrian overlords. In 614 BC Asshur, one ofthe capitals of Assyria, was captured by the Medes. Cyaxares, theleader of the Medes, joined with Nabopolassar, the leader of theBabylonians, and together they captured Nineveh (612 BC) and Harran(610 BC). This effectively brought an end to the Assyrian Empire andbrought the northern portions of the former empire under Mediancontrol. Nebuchadnezzar, Nabopolassar’s son, married Cyaxares’daughter, thus cementing the alliance.

Mediaeventually was conquered by CyrusII, who made Media a provinceof the Persian Empire and added “King of the Medes” tohis titles. Media remained an important culture as part of thePersian Empire, and the dual identification of Persians and Medesremained attached to the empire (Esther 1:19; Dan. 5:28). Thecombined power of Media and Persia became the dominating empire untilthe rise of and conquest by the Greeks under Alexander the Great (332BC).

Mediain the Bible.The Medes and Media figure most prominently in the biblical books ofDaniel and Esther. Daniel began his exile and rise to fame under theBabylonians but finished his prophetic career under the rule of theMedo-Persian Empire. Both Daniel and other prophets foresaw thischange of governance and the Medes’ part in the conquest ofBabylon (Isa. 13:17; 21:2; Jer. 51:11, 28; Dan. 5:28). The importanceof the Median contribution to the culture and governance of the newempire is manifest in the fact that the Medo-Persian ruler Darius iscalled “the Mede” in Dan. 11:1 due to his mixed ancestry(cf. Dan. 9:1). Indeed, the idea that an established law could not bechanged even by the king himself (cf. Esther 1:19) seems to be aMedian contribution to the empire and was the political tool used byDaniel’s enemies to have him thrown into the lions’ den(Dan. 6:8,12).

Manyof the exiled Jews from Judah chose to settle in Media instead ofreturn to Judah, and a portion of their story is recounted in thebook of Esther. Esther 1:3 notes that “the military leaders ofPersia and Media” were among those present at a great feast ofAhasuerus (XerxesI). Similarly, in Esther 1:14 the king’sclosest advisers are labeled “nobles of Persia and Media,”indicating the unity of the two countries and the cultural mix amongthe high officials. The same was true of the high-ranking women inthe land (Esther 1:18).

Jewsfrom Media who recognized the Median language being spoken by theSpirit-filled disciples are mentioned in Acts 2:9. Thus, although thecountry had ceased to be a dominant power in the world, its languageand culture were still present during the NT period.

Greek parlance for the OT Festival of Weeks described in Lev.23:15–22. It gets this name because it is celebrated fifty daysafter the Passover(Gk. pentēkostē means “fiftieth”). The Festivalof Weeks was an important pilgrimage feast commemorating the end ofthe grain harvest. Usually the harvest season began the week ofPassover and continued for fifty days untilthe Festival of Weeks. There are several nonbiblical references toPentecost, all of which allude to the Festival of Weeks, suggestingthat this was a common word in Greek (see Tob. 2:1; 2Macc.12:32; Josephus, Ant. 3.252; J.W. 2.42). The first NT use of the wordoccurs in Acts 2:1. There is little doubt that Luke’s use of“Pentecost” refers to the Festival of Weeks. Paulmentions in 1Cor. 16:8 that he intends to stay in Ephesus untilPentecost but gives no explanation of what he means by “Pentecost.”This early Pauline document suggests that for Christians, Pentecostwas an established date that needed no explanation.

Howoften and to what extent the Festival of Weeks was celebrated in thefirst centuries is open for considerable debate. The Festival ofWeeks gradually lost much of its agricultural meaning and developedmore religious significance, especially as people in the city wereless dependent on the agricultural cycle for their food. For theauthor of Acts, chapter 2 is likely tied to the harvest motif ofJoel. Based on Luke’s quoting of Peter, who uses Joelextensively in his explanation of the giving of the Spirit, it seemsthat in Acts, Luke wanted to tie the events of Pentecost to thebeginning of the “day of the Lord” or the beginning ofthe eschaton. This would coincide with the festival’s harvestmotif especially because it was commemorating the beginning of theend of the harvest. Contemporary Jews still celebrate Pentecost bycommemorating the giving of the law at Sinai and the beginning of theIsraelite community.

A Gentile convert to the religion of the Jews. Proselytism isthe process whereby a Gentile assented to Jewish monotheism,concurred with Jewish criticism of pagan ethics and idolatry,accepted the obligations of the Mosaic law, andentered the nation of Israel. In the LXX the Greek word prosēlytostranslates the Hebrew word ger (“foreigner”)seventy-seven times. The word can denote resident aliens (Lev. 19:10;24:16) and even Israelites(Exod. 22:21; Lev. 19:34; Deut. 10:19). It iscommon to translate prosēlytos as “convert” becauseby the first century AD it did by and large have that meaning ininscriptions, in the NT (Matt. 23:15; Acts 2:11; 6:5; 13:43), Philo(Dreams 2.273; Spec. Laws 1.51, 308; QE 2.2), and the LXX (e.g.,Exod.12:48–49; Deut. 1:16; Pss. 93:6; 145:9; Jer. 7:6; Ezek. 14:7;Zech. 7:10; Mal. 3:5).

Inlater rabbinic regulations converts were required to make a sacrificeand to undergo baptism and circumcision. But this was not necessarilyuniform in the Judaism of the Second Temple period or even in therabbinic era. For instance, Philo asserts that what constitutes aproselyte is not circumcision but rather submission to God, “becausethe proselyte is one who circumcises not his uncircumcision but hisdesires and sensual pleasures and the other passions of the soul”(QE 2.2). Similarly, Josephus narrates a story about the conversionof King Izates of Adiabene, who is given two different views as towhether he needs to be circumcised in order to worship the God ofIsrael or to be “assuredly Jewish” (Ant. 20.34–48).It is quite likely that many of the converts to Christianity camefrom proselyte and God-fearer ranks. They were attracted toChristianity because they could worship the God of Israel throughfaith in Jesus Christ without adopting the religion and nationalityof Judea.

The word “tongue” has several senses in bothTestaments. In the OT, lashon refers to the physical organ (Judg.7:5; Job 20:12; 41:1), the physical tongue that creates speech(2Sam. 23:2; Job 6:30), and the physical organ in reference toindividuals as they profess before God (Isa. 45:23; cf. Rom. 14:11;Phil. 2:11).

Theword “tongue” frequently refers to language (Gen. 10:5;Neh. 13:24; Isa. 28:11; cf. 1Cor. 14:21). Related to this, theword refers to speech as deceitful (Ps. 52:2), as speaking strife(31:20 KJV, RSV), or as that which praises God (35:28). The tonguesings (Ps. 51:14) and extols (66:17).

Thetongue is able to produce very powerful speech that can bring lifeand death (Prov. 18:21). To guard one’s speech is to betrouble-free (21:23). Soft and forbearing speech is persuasive andwins the day rather than aggravates (25:15). Flattering speech seemsfavorable but will be disregarded in the end (28:23).

Thespeech of God is a consuming fire (Isa. 30:27). The mute will havespeech when all things are set right in the eschaton (35:6).

Inthe OT, the word “tongue” is used in parallel withseveral other words. The physical organ is parallel to lips (Ps.12:4), mouth (Job 33:2; Pss. 10:7; 50:19), or throat (Ps. 5:9, wherethe tongue is the source of flattery).

Asimilar Hebrew word, sapah,has several senses, among them “lip” (and so also oftenof the edge or shore of a body of water), and can refer to thelanguage produced by lips. It is sometimes placed in parallel withlashon (Ps. 12:4).

Inthe NT, the word glōssa refers to the physical organ (Mark7:33–35) and language (Acts 2:11; 1Cor. 14:21[heteroglōssos]) and can refer to the miraculous gift oflanguages (Mark 16:17; Acts 2:4; 10:46; 19:6; 1Cor. 12–14).Luke also uses the word in the unusualdescription of the gift of languages coming on the disciples—tonguesof fire resting on each one of them (Acts 2:3).

Finally,James, writing in the style of OT wisdom literature, notes that anuncontrolled tongue—unbridled speech—is not indicative ofthe people of God (James 1:26–27) and is ultimately destructive(3:5–10). See also Speech Impediment.

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

This book, commonly referred to simply as Acts, is the sequelto the Gospel of Luke and records the exciting history of the firstthree decades of the early church. The book begins with the ascensionof Jesus, followed by his sending of the Holy Spirit, and ends withthe gospel message being proclaimed by Paul as a prisoner in thecapital city of the Roman Empire. In the pages in between, the readeris introduced to the key people, places, and events of this strategicand crucial time of Christian history. The book of Acts providesinsightful and inspiring reading. It forms the backdrop forunderstanding much of the NT (especially Paul’s letters), andit provides important models for the contemporary church.

HistoricalBackground

Inorder to understand the book of Acts, one must become familiar withits historical background. This includes understanding the book’sauthorship, recipients, and setting. In terms of authorship, the booktechnically is anonymous; however, there are good reasons for holdingto church history’s traditional view that its author is Luke.This tradition dates back to the early second century and issupported by internal evidence. This evidence further reveals thatLuke was a physician and close companion of the apostle Paul (infact, Luke was actually with Paul for some of the events that herecords in Acts; see the “we” passages, found in16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:8–18; 27:1–28:16). Lukewas well educated, well traveled, and familiar with both the Jewishand the Greco-​Roman worlds. He was a Hellenistic God-fearerand a Christian. He was also familiar with the Jewish Scriptures,Greco-Roman rhetoric, and ancient histories, thus making him theperfect candidate to write an accurate history of early Christianity.

Thespecific recipient of Acts is Theophilus (1:1). Theophilus could becharacterized as a relatively new believer of high social status, aperson educated in Greco-Roman rhetoric and history, and one whopossessed the financial means to promote and publish Luke’swork (both the Gospel of Luke and Acts). It is probable that in someway Theophilus served as a bridge to a wider readership. It seemslikely that Theophilus was Luke’s ideal reader (i.e., aninfluential Greco-Roman of high social standing).

Thespecific setting of Acts is difficult to determine; however, it seemsclear that the book was written during a time of crisis for thechurch. This crisis involved persecution and slander of Christians byboth Jews and Gentiles. Both groups were trying to persuade publicopinion against Christianity, including the opinion of Greco-Romanauthorities. The persecution and slander were taking their toll onthe church, and many Christians were demoralized and struggling toremain faithful as witnesses of Jesus. Christianity needed someone towrite a response to this crisis. This response had to do threethings: (1) accurately relate the history of the church toinfluential Greco-Romans of high social status; (2) show thatChristianity was an ancient religion (ancient religions wereconsidered to be legitimate by Roman authorities) and an asset to theRoman Empire, not a threat; (3) legitimize Christianity overagainst Judaism. The author of this reponse had to be someone who wasrespected both inside and outside of the Christian faith community,who knew the church’s history well, and who was educated inGreco-Roman rhetoric. What better authorial candidate than Luke?Finally, the church also needed a person of high social status andfinancial means to help publish and promote the work; thus,Theophilus was chosen.

Purpose

Thebook of Acts was written for a variety of purposes. These includeapologetics, legitimization, discipleship, and witness to salvation.The apologetic purpose of Acts focuses on how Christianity could berecognized as an ancient, honorable, and officially protectedreligion in the Roman Empire. Although Judaism had the status ofreligio licita (legal religion) with Roman authorities for most ofthe first century, Christianity encountered serious problems in thisrespect. Acts itself reveals a substantial amount of such evidence inthis regard. For example, 16:20–21 shows that at Philippi, Pauland Silas were charged with disturbing the peace by advocatingunlawful customs. In Thessalonica, the missionaries were accused ofdefying Caesar by promoting another king named “Jesus”(17:7). At Corinth, the charge was that of persuading the peopletoward unlawful worship (18:13). Later in Acts, Paul was charged bythe Jewish priestly leaders with being part of an unacceptable sectthat was stirring up riots in Jewish communities (24:5–9). In28:22, when Paul addressed the Roman Jews, they responded by sayingthat “people everywhere are talking against this sect[Christianity].” Such accusations, accompanied by the fact thatChristianity’s founder had been crucified by Roman authorities,made it difficult for the Christians to gain credibility.Christianity’s precarious position with Rome was furtherexacerbated by a strong Jewish campaign to separate from Christiansand to label them as sectarian. This strategy certainly intended forChristianity to be viewed by Rome as religio illicita (illegal orforbidden religion). Thus, Luke writes Acts to defend Christianity byshowing that it is not a replacement of Judaism, but rather itslegitimate continuation. Therefore, it should be accepted by theRoman authorities as a legal religion just as Judaism was accepted.

Luke’sapologetic message also appears to be directed inwardly, to astruggling church. This inward focus leads to Luke’s next mainpurpose: legitimization of the Christian faith for its adherents. Aspart of his defense, Luke intends to equip the church in the midst ofan identity crisis due to the constant threats of illegitimacy. Thisexplains Luke’s strategy of retelling the story of the church’sorigins so that followers of Christ would understand their trueposition from God’s perspective. Thus, Luke verifies fourthings: (1) the Jewish Scriptures prophesied a coming messiah,and Jesus matched these prophecies; (2) the resurrection wasforetold in Scripture and verified by eyewitnesses; (3) it wasGod’s plan all along for Gentiles to be included in God’sredemptive work; (4) Jews who rejected Jesus were acting in thesame way their ancestors did; therefore, believers should not besurprised by their negative reaction to Jesus. Luke uses stories suchas the one in Acts 2:41–47 to verify that salvation wasgenuinely being accomplished in the church and that Christians wereexperiencing the fulfillment of God’s ancient promises toIsrael. Luke’s writing is intended to encourage hiscontemporary church members to remain faithful in their service andwitness for the Lord. He reminds them that they are the true(legitimate) “people of God” and that God’s Spiritwill help them prevail and will give them abundant life even in themidst of hardship and persecution.

Anotherkey purpose of the book of Acts is to foster discipleship. Theprologues of both Luke’s Gospel and Acts verify that Luke iswriting to provide instruction and teaching for Theophilus (see Luke1:1–4; Acts 1:1–2). Part of this instruction reveals thatthe ascension of Jesus was not the end of his relationship with theworld, but rather a new beginning. Jesus’ departure did notmean abandonment; in fact, it meant just the opposite. Jesus verifieshis continuing presence and work in the world after his departurejust as he had lived and worked before. In other words, the sameSpirit who directed the ministry of Jesus is now going to direct theministry of Jesus’ followers. The rest of the book of Actsprovides instruction (with many personal examples) on how Christ canfulfill the ministry of believers through the power and direction ofthe Holy Spirit. Luke’s discipleship teaching includes helpingbelievers learn how to experience and follow God’s Spirit(chap. 2), to boldly witness for Christ in the midst of persecution(chaps. 3–4, 8, 14, 16–17, 19–28), to sacrificiallyshare resources with other Christians in need (chaps. 2, 4, 11), toresolve disputes within the church (chaps. 6, 15), and to take thegospel message of salvation to all people (chaps. 2, 11, 13–28).

Thebook of Acts places great emphasis on the message of salvation andthe responsibility given to believers to share this salvific messagewith all people. This salvation-witness concept is clearly one ofLuke’s key purposes for the book of Acts. The Pentecost eventof Acts 2 initiates the theme of salvation for all people and thussets the agenda for the rest of the book. In this passage, variousJews from many nations hear the good news in their own tongue, whichsuggests that this news is for peoples of all tongues and nations yetfor Jews first. The rest of Acts continues this theme of theuniversal scope of salvation. Luke makes it clear that this salvationcrosses all geographical, ethnic, and social boundaries. In Acts,Luke is bridging the gap between Jesus’ earthly ministry and alater generation of Christ followers who are to take the gospel to amuch wider geographical area with even greater ethnic diversity. Themessage of salvation should be joined with Luke’s emphasis onwitness. The centrality of the theme of witness in Acts is verifiedby Jesus’ words right before the ascension: “And you willbe my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and tothe ends of the earth” (1:8). The book of Acts tells the storyof how the early church received and obeyed the command of Jesus tobear witness of him to the ends of the earth.

LiteraryFeatures

Thesekey purposes of Acts are expounded through some distinctive literaryfeatures found in the book. One such literary feature is that thebook of Acts was written in a literary genre called “apologetichistoriography.” This genre can be defined as the story of asubgroup of people told by a member of the group who explains thegroup’s traditions and history while using Greco-Roman literaryfeatures. A good example of this literary genre is Josephus’sJewish Antiquities. Josephus tells the story of the Jews toGreco-Roman readers in hopes that they will better understand Jewishhistory and traditions and will accept the Jews in the largerGreco-Roman world. This appears to be exactly what Luke is doing inthe book of Acts for Christians. However, Luke is not giving adefense of a particular ethnic group; rather, he is defending amulticultural people who transcend ethnic and geographicalboundaries. In fact, this is a key part of Luke’s message.Throughout Acts, Luke is trying to explain why his religion is onethat crosses ethnic boundaries and is a universal religion inclusiveof all ethnicities. As Luke tells the story of Christianity, he iscareful to utilize Hellenistic literary features in order to connectwith his primary audience. Evidence of these Hellenistic literaryfeatures in the book of Acts includes a narrative style illustratingthe history through the personal experiences of key characters (Actstells the history of the early church through characters such asPeter and Paul), the frequent use of speeches, personal observationof at least part of the narrative while maintaining anonymity ofauthorship (the “we” passages of Acts), and the frequentuse of summaries to guide the narrative (Acts contains three majorsummaries [2:42–47; 4:32–37; 5:12–16] and a numberof minor summaries [6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; 19:20; 28:31]).

Outlineand Survey

Actscan be outlined according to Jesus’ final words, recorded in1:8: “You will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you;and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea andSamaria, and to the ends of the earth.”

I.Witnesses in Jerusalem (1:1–8:3)II. Witnesses in Judeaand Samaria (8:4–12:25)III. Witnesses to the Ends of theEarth (13:1–28:31)

I.Witnesses in Jerusalem (Acts 1:1–8:3).Immediately following his ascension, Jesus tells his followers toreturn to Jerusalem and wait for the coming of the Holy Spirit. Theypromptly obey, and after ten days of waiting, the disciples aredramatically filled with the Holy Spirit and begin to share thegospel with those around them. This event occurs at the JewishPentecost festival, which was attended by Jews and Jewish proselytesfrom throughout the Roman Empire. After the Spirit comes atPentecost, Peter boldly preaches to the crowds, and over threethousand people respond with saving faith (2:41).

Lukenext provides an exciting summary of the Spirit-led life within theearly church. This life is characterized by the early believers’participation together in the sharing of worship activities, materialpossessions, and spiritual blessings (2:42–47). This summary isfollowed by several dramatic healing miracles accomplished throughPeter and the subsequent arrest of Christian leaders by Jewishreligious authorities. Instead of squelching the Christian movement,however, these arrests only enhance the spiritual revival and itsaccompanying miracles. This revival is characterized by extremegenerosity and unity within the early church (4:32–37).

Therevival joy, however, is marred by the deceitful actions of Ananiasand Sapphira, who lie to the church and to the Holy Spirit and arejudged by God with immediate death (5:1–11). This story provesthat God will go to extreme lengths to protect the unity of hischurch. Following more persecution and miracles, the disciples chooseseven men to oversee distribution of food to Hellenistic widows whohave been neglected in daily food distributions (6:1–7). One ofthese leaders, Stephen, is arrested and brought before the Sanhedrin.Stephen testifies boldly before the Jewish leaders and is promptlyexecuted by stoning (chap. 7). This execution is endorsed by Saul, azealous Pharisee who begins to lead fierce persecution against thechurch in Jerusalem (8:1–3).

II.Witnesses in Judea and Samaria (Acts 8:4–12:25).Saul’s persecution forces many of the early church believers toleave Jerusalem. These believers scatter throughout the surroundingareas of Judea and Samaria. As they scatter, however, they continueto preach the gospel (8:4). Philip preaches in Samaria and performsmany miraculous signs, producing a spiritual revival in the region.Hearing about this, the apostles send Peter and John to Samaria tominister to the Samaritans (8:18–25), thus confirming thecross-cultural nature of the gospel (Samaritans traditionally werehated by the Jews). Next Luke tells of Philip’s evangelizing ofan Ethiopian eunuch (8:26–40).

Followingthe Ethiopian’s belief in Jesus, the narrative tells of Saul’sdramatic conversion while traveling to Damascus to persecuteChristians there (9:1–19). Saul’s dramatic turnaround ismet with suspicion by the other disciples, but eventually he isaccepted by the believers with the help of Barnabas (9:27–30).Next Peter travels to the Judean countryside and heals the paralyticAeneas and raises Dorcas from the dead (9:32–42). Thesemiracles produce an exciting spiritual revival in the region.Following this, God gives Peter a vision to go to the coastal city ofCaesarea in order to minister to Cornelius, a Roman army officer.Cornelius is a God-fearer, and through Peter’s witness heresponds to the gospel message and receives the Holy Spirit (chap.10). Peter explains his actions with Cornelius to his concernedJewish companions and verifies that God has indeed included theGentiles in his plan of salvation (11:1–18).

Thisverification is followed by the report of what is happening in thechurch at Antioch, where Jews begin to share the gospel with largergroups of Gentiles (11:19–21). This cross-cultural evangelismproduces a spiritual revival in Antioch, causing the Jerusalem churchto send Barnabas to the large Syrian city to investigate (11:22–30).Barnabas confirms that God is indeed at work in Antioch and invitesSaul to come and help him disciple the new Gentile believers(11:25–26). Next Luke reports more persecution breaking outagainst Christians in Jerusalem, resulting in the arrest of James andPeter by King Herod. James is executed, but Peter miraculouslyescapes from prison with the help of an angel (12:1–19), andthe church continues to increase, spreading throughout the RomanEmpire.

III.Witnesses to the ends of the earth (Acts 13:1–28:31).Starting with chapter 13, the narrative shifts its focus from theministry of Peter to that of Paul (formerly Saul). The church atAntioch begins to take center stage over the church at Jerusalem.This church commissions Paul and Barnabas and sends them off on theirfirst missionary journey, accompanied by Bar­na­bas’scousin John Mark. The missionaries first sail to Cyprus, where theypreach in synagogues and encounter a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-Jesus. Nextthey sail to Pamphylia, thus crossing into Asia Minor, and preach thegospel in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (this area wasknown as part of the region of Galatia). In these cities, Godprovides numerous miracles, and the missionaries experience a greatresponse to the gospel as well as much persecution because of thegospel. On one occasion, Paul is actually stoned and left for dead(14:19–20).

Unfazed,Paul and his team boldly continue their mission. Eventually, theyretrace their steps, strengthen the churches that they have started,and sail back to Syrian Antioch, where they give an exciting reportto the church (14:26–28). Following this report, Luke tells ofan important meeting of church leaders in Jerusalem. The subject ofthe meeting involves whether or not the new Gentile Christians shouldbe required to follow the Jewish laws and customs. After debating theissue, the leaders side with Paul, determining that the Gentilesshould not be burdened with Jewish laws and traditions, but simplymust live moral lives and not eat food that has been sacrificed toidols (chap. 15).

Followingthis meeting, Paul and Barnabas decide to make a second missionaryjourney. Unfortunately, the two missionaries get into a dispute overwhether to take John Mark with them again. The argument is such thatthe missionaries decide to separate, and Paul chooses a new partner,Silas. They travel by land back to Galatia. Barnabas takes John Markand sails to Cyprus. Paul and Silas return to Derbe and Lystra andthen make their way to Macedonia and Greece. They spend significanttime in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth before returning toCaesarea and Antioch (chaps. 16–18). Following his return, Paulmakes a third missionary journey, revisiting churches in Galatia andPhrygia and staying in Ephesus for three years before visitingMacedonia and Greece for a second time.

Paulconcludes his third missionary journey with a trip to Jerusalem,where he is falsely accused of bringing a Gentile into the temple.This accusation creates a riot, and Paul is rescued by Romansoldiers, who arrest him and transfer him to a prison in Caesarea,where he spends two years awaiting trial under the rule of Felix andFestus (23:34–25:22). Paul eventually exercises his right as aRoman citizen to have his case heard by the emperor. He is sent toRome by boat and is shipwrecked on the island of Malta. Eventually hemakes his way to the capital city, where he is placed under housearrest. While in Rome, Paul maintains a rented house and is free toreceive visitors and write letters. In fact, it is thought that Paulpenned his “prison letters” during this time of housearrest (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon). The narrativeof Acts ends with Paul ministering boldly in Rome while awaiting histrial.

Actsand the Contemporary Church

Thebook of Acts provides a model for today’s church on numeroustopics. These include understanding the role of the Holy Spirit,practicing community life within the church, dealing with hardshipand persecution, overcoming social injustices, and carrying outmissions.

Actsreveals that the key issue for Christians is learning to experienceand follow God’s Holy Spirit, who enables believers to be boldin their witness for Christ, generous in their physical and spiritualsupport of each other, and effective in their ministries. Actsconsistently reveals that one’s joy, power, and purpose comefrom the Holy Spirit. According to Acts, learning to follow anddepend upon God’s Holy Spirit is the key to having a healthychurch.

Actsalso shows that the Holy Spirit produces a unique community lifecharacterized by worship, generosity, blessing, and unity. Luke callsthis Spirit-led common life koinōnia, which is explained andillustrated in the first five chapters of Acts (see esp. 2:42–47).It should be the desire and goal of every church to re-create thiskoinōnia community first experienced by the primitive church inActs.

Inaddition to its koinōnia, the book of Acts serves as a model forthe church in overcoming persecution and hardship. The narrative ofActs consistently reveals the sovereign power of God in overcomingopposition. The early church found great joy and growth in the midstof hardship and persecution, and today’s church can do thesame.

Anotherimportant example for the church provided by Acts is in the area ofsocial justice. Luke’s primitive church consistently removedethnic prejudices, eliminated social hierarchy and status within thechurch, and elevated the role of women. Acts provides inspiration andguidance for today’s church in facing these same social issues.

Inaddition to overcoming social injustices, the church in Acts providesan excellent example of mission ministry. These believersconsistently revealed God’s heart for the nations and made it apriority to share the gospel with all people everywhere. Acts’emphasis on the universal nature of the gospel, the responsibility ofindividual Christians to witness for Christ, and the importance ofplanting new churches and discipling new believers sets a pattern fortoday’s church in the area of missions.

Theseexamples should serve to inspire and guide the contemporary church asit seeks to follow and experience the Holy Spirit, who is sopowerfully revealed in the book of Acts.

A Greek form of the common Hebrew name “Hananiah.”(1) Amember of the Jerusalem church whose death was followed by that ofhis wife, Sapphira, as a result of holding back part of theirpossessions (Acts 5:1–11). Peter rebuked Ananias and Sapphira’sdeception as lying to or testing “the Holy Spirit” (vv.3, 5). This incident is best understood against the background ofActs 2–4, which describes as closely related being “filledwith the Holy Spirit” (2:4; 4:31), the spread of the gospel(2:40; 4:4), and the communal sharing of possessions (2:44–45;4:32–37).

(2) Adisciple at Damascus who helped restore Saul’s eyesight andbaptized him in accordance with the Lord’s direction in avision (Acts 9). In Acts 22:12 Paul describes Ananias as “adevout observer of the law and highly respected by all the Jewsliving [at Damascus].” He was the one who informed Paul of hiscalling as a witness for Jesus to all people (22:12–15).

(3) Ahigh priest in Jerusalem during AD 47–58. He presided over theinterrogation of Paul at the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem (Acts 23:1–10)and testified against Paul before Felix (24:1). His character is wellillustrated in his command to strike Paul on the mouth, upon whichPaul calls him a “whitewashed wall” and sees him unfitfor the high priesthood (23:2–5). Being a pro-Roman figure,Ananias was assassinated by the Zealots in AD 66.

A large peninsula lying between the Red Sea on the west andthe Persian Gulf on the east. In the Bible the term is actuallyseldom used (2 Chron. 9:14; Isa. 21:13; Jer. 25:24; Ezek. 27:21;30:5; Gal. 1:17; 4:25), and when it is, it refers more to the generalarea than to any specific group of people or geographic location. Itseems to stand as a designation for that expanse of land that lies tothe south and east of Canaan and the Transjordan peoples. On severaloccasions the term “Arabs” is used to designate thepeople from those regions (2 Chron. 17:11; 21:16; 22:1; 26:7;Neh. 4:7; Acts 2:11). Elsewhere they are referred to as “easternpeoples” (Gen. 29:1; Judg. 6:3, 33; 7:12; 8:10) or “peopleof the East” (1 Kings 4:30; Job 1:3; Jer. 49:28; Ezek.25:4; 25:10). In Gen. 25:6 Arabia is referred to as the “landof the east,” and in Isa. 2:6 simply as “the East”(although this may refer simply to Syria and Mesopotamia).

Clearly,Arabia is a presence in the Scripture, although its role is notnearly as dominant or even as clear as that of other nations orregions, whether superpowers such as Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt orlesser nations such as the Am­mon­ites or the variousCanaanite peoples. Still, the importance of Arabia should not beoverlooked.

Likemany other peoples in the OT, how these people are evaluated bybiblical writers is diverse, which is compounded by the fact that thevarious referents for “Arabs” or “Arabia” canonly really be determined, if at all, from a close examination of thecontext. Nevertheless, we see that “all the kings of Arabia andthe governors of the territories” gave gifts to Solomon(2 Chron. 9:14). The Arabs are also said to bring tribute toJehoshaphat (17:11). Elsewhere in the historical books theirrelationship with the Israelites is more hostile (e.g., 2 Chron.21:16; 22:1; Neh. 4:7).

Neitherdo they escape the attention of the prophets. In Isa. 21:13–16their troubles are predicted at the hands of other nations (notablythe Babylonians and the Assyrians, both of whom waged battles atlater points in Israel’s history). Isaiah also refers toDedanites and Kedar, the first being an Arabian tribe and the seconda home of Bedouin tribes. Both references assume their nomadiclifestyle. According to Jer. 25:24, they will be among many nationswho will drink of the cup of God’s wrath. According to Ezek.30:5, Arabia will fall by the sword (Nebuchadnezzar’s) as oneof several allies of Egypt.

Inthe NT, Arabs were among those present at Pentecost (Acts 2:11).After his conversion Paul journeyed to Arabia (Gal. 1:17), by whichis meant the Nabatean kingdom, stretching from the Transjordansouthwest toward the Sinai Peninsula. Interestingly, Paul’sreference to Mount Sinai as being in Arabia (Gal. 4:25) may suggest alocation other than the traditional one of the Sinai Peninsula—forexample, across the Gulf of Aqaba (the eastern arm of the Red Sea) inor near Midian (see Exod. 2:11–3:3)—although there is noconsensus on this matter.

The outpouring of the Spirit that was prophesied in the OT totake place in the last days, in connection with the arrival of theMessiah.

Spiritbaptism in the Bible.The OT prophets had spoken of both the Spirit of God coming upon theMessiah (e.g., Isa. 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and a giving or pouring out ofthe Spirit in the last days (e.g., Isa. 32:15; 44:3; Ezek. 36:27;37:14; 39:29; Joel 2:28). Peter connects the giving of the Spiritwith Jesus’ being received by the Father and being grantedmessianic authority (Acts 2:33–38). The experience of Corneliusin particular associates the pouring out of the Spirit (Acts 10:45)with a baptism with the Spirit (11:16).

Sevenpassages in the NT directly speak of someone being baptized in/withthe Spirit. Four of these passages refer to John the Baptist’sprediction that Jesus will baptize people in/with the Spirit incontrast to his own water baptism (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:16;John 1:33). In Matthew and Luke, Jesus’ baptism is referred toas a baptism with the Holy Spirit and with fire. Two passages referto Jesus’ prediction that the disciples would receive Spiritbaptism, which occurred at Pentecost. As recorded in Acts 2, tonguesof fire came to rest on each of them, they were filled with the HolySpirit, and they began to speak in other tongues. As the disciplesspoke to the Jews who had gathered in Jerusalem for the festival,three thousand were converted. Acts 1:5 contains Jesus’prediction of this baptism with the Spirit, which Peter recounts in11:16.

Thefinal reference occurs in 1 Cor. 12:13, where Paul says, “Forwe were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body—whetherJews or Gentiles, slave or free—and we were all given the oneSpirit to drink.” Thus, Christians form one body through theircommon experience of immersion in the one Spirit.

Asecond baptism?Whilein 1 Cor. 12 Paul seems to refer to an experience that allChristians undergo at conversion, there are several incidents in Actswhere the reception of the Spirit occurs after conversion. Thequestion then arises as to whether there is a separate “baptismin/with the Holy Spirit” distinct from the Spirit’sinitial work of regeneration and incorporation into the body ofChrist at conversion and whether this two-stage process is normativefor the church. This belief in a second baptism is particularlyprominent in Pentecostal traditions.

Examplessuch as Acts 2; 8; 10; 19 are commonly used to support the view of asecond and subsequent experience of Spirit baptism. In Acts 2 thedisciples are already converted and wait for the Spirit, who comes tothem at Pentecost. In Acts 8 the Samaritans first respond to Philip’spreaching and receive water baptism. However, they receive the Spiritonly after Peter and John come from Jerusalem and pray for them toreceive the Holy Spirit. In Acts 10 Cornelius is a God-fearingGentile, and after Peter visits him, the Spirit falls on hishousehold. In Acts 19 Paul finds some disciples in Ephesus. After helays hands on them, the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and they beginto speak in tongues and prophesy.

Inunderstanding these experiences, it must be remembered that Actsdescribes a transitional period for the church. Acts 2 in particularrecounts the initial giving of the Spirit under the new covenant. Itis possible, then, to see the events in Acts 8; 10 as the coming ofthe Spirit upon two other people groups, the Samaritans and theGentiles. Acts 2:38 and 5:32 indicate that the apostles expected thereception of the Spirit to accompany conversion, and this appears tobe the case in the rest of the book. Acts 19 narrates anincomplete conversion, where the people had only experienced John’sbaptism and receive the Spirit after Paul baptizes them “in thename of the Lord Jesus.”

Filledwith the Spirit.Although the NT does not support a theology of a second Spiritbaptism, it does commonly mention an experience of being “filled”with the Spirit. The concept of being “filled with the Spirit”frequently occurs in contexts referring to spiritual growth, such asin Eph. 5:18, where Paul exhorts, “Do not get drunk on wine,which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit.”Apparently, this filling can occur numerous times. It can lead toworship of and thanksgiving to God (Eph. 5:19–20). It can alsoresult in empowerment for ministry.

Theimmediate consequence of the disciples’ filling in Acts 2:4 isspeaking in tongues to the various Jews gathered in Jerusalem, and in4:31 they are empowered to speak “the word of God boldly.”Fullness of the Spirit can also be a characteristic of a believer’slife, such as in Acts 6:3, where the seven men chosen to look afterthe widows were to be men “known to be full of the Spirit.”

The outpouring of the Spirit that was prophesied in the OT totake place in the last days, in connection with the arrival of theMessiah.

Spiritbaptism in the Bible.The OT prophets had spoken of both the Spirit of God coming upon theMessiah (e.g., Isa. 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and a giving or pouring out ofthe Spirit in the last days (e.g., Isa. 32:15; 44:3; Ezek. 36:27;37:14; 39:29; Joel 2:28). Peter connects the giving of the Spiritwith Jesus’ being received by the Father and being grantedmessianic authority (Acts 2:33–38). The experience of Corneliusin particular associates the pouring out of the Spirit (Acts 10:45)with a baptism with the Spirit (11:16).

Sevenpassages in the NT directly speak of someone being baptized in/withthe Spirit. Four of these passages refer to John the Baptist’sprediction that Jesus will baptize people in/with the Spirit incontrast to his own water baptism (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:16;John 1:33). In Matthew and Luke, Jesus’ baptism is referred toas a baptism with the Holy Spirit and with fire. Two passages referto Jesus’ prediction that the disciples would receive Spiritbaptism, which occurred at Pentecost. As recorded in Acts 2, tonguesof fire came to rest on each of them, they were filled with the HolySpirit, and they began to speak in other tongues. As the disciplesspoke to the Jews who had gathered in Jerusalem for the festival,three thousand were converted. Acts 1:5 contains Jesus’prediction of this baptism with the Spirit, which Peter recounts in11:16.

Thefinal reference occurs in 1 Cor. 12:13, where Paul says, “Forwe were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body—whetherJews or Gentiles, slave or free—and we were all given the oneSpirit to drink.” Thus, Christians form one body through theircommon experience of immersion in the one Spirit.

Asecond baptism?Whilein 1 Cor. 12 Paul seems to refer to an experience that allChristians undergo at conversion, there are several incidents in Actswhere the reception of the Spirit occurs after conversion. Thequestion then arises as to whether there is a separate “baptismin/with the Holy Spirit” distinct from the Spirit’sinitial work of regeneration and incorporation into the body ofChrist at conversion and whether this two-stage process is normativefor the church. This belief in a second baptism is particularlyprominent in Pentecostal traditions.

Examplessuch as Acts 2; 8; 10; 19 are commonly used to support the view of asecond and subsequent experience of Spirit baptism. In Acts 2 thedisciples are already converted and wait for the Spirit, who comes tothem at Pentecost. In Acts 8 the Samaritans first respond to Philip’spreaching and receive water baptism. However, they receive the Spiritonly after Peter and John come from Jerusalem and pray for them toreceive the Holy Spirit. In Acts 10 Cornelius is a God-fearingGentile, and after Peter visits him, the Spirit falls on hishousehold. In Acts 19 Paul finds some disciples in Ephesus. After helays hands on them, the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and they beginto speak in tongues and prophesy.

Inunderstanding these experiences, it must be remembered that Actsdescribes a transitional period for the church. Acts 2 in particularrecounts the initial giving of the Spirit under the new covenant. Itis possible, then, to see the events in Acts 8; 10 as the coming ofthe Spirit upon two other people groups, the Samaritans and theGentiles. Acts 2:38 and 5:32 indicate that the apostles expected thereception of the Spirit to accompany conversion, and this appears tobe the case in the rest of the book. Acts 19 narrates anincomplete conversion, where the people had only experienced John’sbaptism and receive the Spirit after Paul baptizes them “in thename of the Lord Jesus.”

Filledwith the Spirit.Although the NT does not support a theology of a second Spiritbaptism, it does commonly mention an experience of being “filled”with the Spirit. The concept of being “filled with the Spirit”frequently occurs in contexts referring to spiritual growth, such asin Eph. 5:18, where Paul exhorts, “Do not get drunk on wine,which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit.”Apparently, this filling can occur numerous times. It can lead toworship of and thanksgiving to God (Eph. 5:19–20). It can alsoresult in empowerment for ministry.

Theimmediate consequence of the disciples’ filling in Acts 2:4 isspeaking in tongues to the various Jews gathered in Jerusalem, and in4:31 they are empowered to speak “the word of God boldly.”Fullness of the Spirit can also be a characteristic of a believer’slife, such as in Acts 6:3, where the seven men chosen to look afterthe widows were to be men “known to be full of the Spirit.”

Every faithful translation of the Bible is the word of God.In this respect, Christianity is very different from Islam, whichconsiders the Arabic version of the Qur’an exclusively holy. Itis true that only the original versions of the biblical books, whichwere written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, were verbally inspired,and this means that individual translations, like copies, can containerrors. Translations also necessarily involve some degree ofinterpretation. However, all language is created by God, and in theincarnation the Word became fully human as well as fully divine. InGod’s hands, every human language is as capable as any other ofexpressing his truth.

SincePentecost, the Holy Spirit has been at work to reverse the effect ofhuman sin at Babel (Gen. 11:9), not by reducing all languages to one,but by redeeming the diversity and richness of the world’slanguages so that all can hear God speak to them in their own tongue(Acts 2:1–11). Indeed, translations of Scripture themselvestransform the languages and cultures in which they are written,endowing them with new or revised concepts of God, humanity, sin, andthe means of salvation.

TheHistory of Translation

Bibletranslation began long before the Bible as we know it was complete.In the fifth century BC the Israelites who returned from exile spokeAramaic. Thus, they needed the Levites to translate the Hebrew lawfor them (Neh. 8:8). This Levitical teaching was probably an earlyexample of a Targum, a translation into Aramaic with interpretationand expansion. We do not know exactly when the Targumim began to bewritten down, but some of the earliest fragments that have been foundare among the DSS.

Byabout the third century BC the dominant languages of Palestine wereGreek and Aramaic. Many NT quotations from the OT use an establishedGreek translation of the OT. This was known as the Septuagint (LXX),after the legend that it was translated by seventy-two men, six fromeach tribe of Israel, on the orders of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt(285–247 BC). The NT was written in similar “common”(koinē) Greek, but in some places the Gospels and Acts translatewords that Jesus and Paul originally spoke in Aramaic (Mark 5:41;15:34; Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14; see also John 5:2; 19:13, 17, 20;20:16).

UntilPentecost, God’s revelation was translated only into thelanguages spoken by the Jewish people in their everyday life. AtPentecost, however, the coming of the Holy Spirit was marked by adisplay of miraculous linguistic gifts, and a new era of Bibletranslation had begun (Acts 2). As Christians obeyed Christ’scommand to take the word of God into all the world, they began totranslate it into all the languages used by the growing church.

Withinthree centuries, Scripture was translated from the original Hebrew,Aramaic, and Greek into Syriac, Coptic, and Latin. The earliesttranslations into these languages were then revised and improved inthe subsequent centuries until some, such as Jerome’s LatinVulgate and the Syriac Pesh*tta, emerged as acknowledged standards.Other early translations included Ethiopic, Armenian, Georgian, andOld Slavonic. Many of these languages were already written, but asmissionaries ventured further, they sometimes had to start byreducing spoken languages to writing. Ulfilas, missionary to theGoths, was the first to do this.

Allof the thirty-three translations prior to the Reformation had to becopied out by hand, and almost all were “secondarytranslations” made from the Latin. Moreover, despite theefforts of early reformers such as John Wycliffe (AD 1330–84),the Catholic Church continued to use the Latin text itself, which wasaccessible only to the educated. In the sixteenth century, however,the printing press was invented, Renaissance scholars rediscoveredthe value of consulting texts in the original Hebrew and Greek, andProtestantism realized that believers need the Bible in their mothertongue.

Themost influential sixteenth-century translator into English wasWilliam Tyndale (1494–1536). His work on the NT and parts ofthe OT was gradually expanded and revised by other scholars,culminating in the 1611 King James Version, which is still widelyused. Meanwhile, other European translations were produced in German(by Martin Luther), Spanish, Hungarian, Portuguese, and French.

TheReformation also gave new momentum to mission outside Europe, and bythe end of the eighteenth century the number of languages having theBible had roughly doubled. A much greater global achievement,however, began in the nineteenth century, when the newly formed Biblesocieties, with other mission agencies, were instrumental in thetranslation and publication of portions of Scripture in over fourhundred languages. Famous translators from this century includeWilliam Carey in India, John Robert Morrison in China, Henry Martynin Persia, and Adoniram Judson in Burma. About five hundred moretranslations were added in the first half of the twentieth century.Progress was, nevertheless, slow. Many languages were difficult toanalyze, and it was particularly hard to produce translations thatread smoothly, using the genres and idioms that a native speakerwould use.

Sincethe 1950s, linguistic science has revolutionized the way thattranslation is carried out, and organizations such as Wycliffe BibleTranslators have set themselves the task of giving every person inthe world the Scriptures in their everyday language. Increasingly,translation is carried out by linguistically trained native speakersof the target languages, working wherever possible from the originalHebrew and Greek. Translators understand better than before howextended discourses are constructed at levels above the sentence, andhow social and pragmatic factors affect meaning. The combination oflinguistics and technology has also greatly increased the speed withwhich translations can be produced; sometimes a first draft in a newlanguage can be generated from a closely related language using acomputer program.

Typesof Translation

Alltranslators aim for both accuracy and acceptability, but the work oftranslation constantly involves compromise between these two factors.There are, broadly speaking, two types of translation: formalcorrespondence and functional equivalence.

Ina formal correspondence translation (also called “literal”),the translator, as far as possible, preserves the word order andstructure of the original text and translates each word the same wayevery time it occurs, even if the result is slightly wooden. This ishelpful for word studies, and it preserves patterns of repetitionthat give structure to the text. There is always a danger, however,that the closest formal match to the original actually conveys ameaning different from the original in a particular context.Literalness is not the same as accuracy. Pushed to its extreme,formal correspondence produces the kind of semitranslation found ininterlinear texts (where the English is reproduced word for wordbelow a line of Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek); it is not grammaticallyacceptable, cannot be used on its own for public or private reading,and loses many of the nuances of the original. However, formalcorrespondence translations that avoid such extremes are importantfor detailed Bible study.

Ina functional equivalence translation (also called “dynamic,”“idiomatic equivalence,” or “meaning-based”),the translator aims to produce the same response in a modern readeras the original text would have done in an ancient reader. To achievethis, the syntactic structures and figures of speech of Greek andHebrew are replaced by their equivalents in the target language. Aword may be translated many different ways in different contexts,even when it has a single basic meaning in the original. While thispreserves some nuances, it loses others, obscuring structure and thedeliberate echo of one verse in another. In this case there is alwaysa danger that the translator has misunderstood the original meaningand the response that it would have produced. Pushed to its extreme,this type shades into paraphrase, and it may be overly subjective orjeopardize the historical particularity of the text. However, dynamicequivalence translations that avoid such pitfalls are valuable forevangelism, new readers, and public and devotional reading.

Inpractice most translations sit somewhere on the spectrum betweenthese two extremes. Some intermediate translations are a deliberatecompromise, aiming to keep as close as possible to the original whilecommunicating its meaning clearly in a common language that isaccessible to all. The NIV is a widely used example. One problem inusing such a translation is knowing when form has been preserved atthe expense of meaning, and when meaning has been preserved at theexpense of form. For serious study, therefore, it is useful tocompare intermediate translations with translations of the other twotypes, and to learn from the introductory material what translationprinciples have been used.

Toillustrate the differences between the types of translation, considerhow Rom. 3:21 is rendered by the NASB (formal correspondence), theNIV (intermediate), and the NLT (functional equivalence):

Butnow apart from the Law the righteousness of God has been manifested,being witnessed by the Law and the Prophets. (NASB)

Butnow apart from the law the righteousness of God has been made known,to which the Law and the Prophets testify. (NIV)

Butnow God has shown us a way to be made right with him without keepingthe requirements of the law, as was promised in the writings of Mosesand the prophets long ago. (NLT)

FurtherChoices in Translation

Withinthis spectrum translators have further detailed decisions to make.

First,what are the best available Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts, asdetermined by the discipline of textual criticism?

Second,what style should be used? An elevated or archaic style is sometimespreferred in order to convey the dignity of the word; others use adeliberately colloquial style in order to maximize accessibility.Different books of the Bible themselves have different styles andgenres, ranging from vivid stories and evocative poems to precisedoctrinal formulations, and a translation may attempt to reflect thisdiversity. At the same time, the style and range of vocabulary chosenwill depend to some extent on the needs of the target audience.

Third,should the translation contain complexity and ambiguity when theoriginal does, or should it clarify and simplify? Some parts ofScripture were never easy reading even in the original (see 2 Pet.3:15–16). However, it is sometimes necessary to disambiguate inorder to produce grammatically acceptable text in the targetlanguage. In modern books it is also normal to divide text intoparagraphs and chapters, often with subheadings. Ancient texts,however, were written without any such breaks, so this too is aninterpretation of the text for the sake of clarity.

Fourth,what should the translator do when there is no equivalent word orphrase in the target language? Many people groups have never seen asheep! Sometimes a choice must be made between coining a new word andrefocusing the meaning of an existing word. This is particularlydifficult when deciding how to refer to God in a pagan culture.Translating gesture can also be challenging. For example, in Jer.31:19 the Hebrew is literally “I slapped my thigh,” whichis an indication of distress; but in Western culture slapping one’sthigh would probably mean enjoying a good joke, so the NIV translatesthe Hebrew as “beat my breast.” Footnotes may benecessary to ensure that the meaning is fully understood.

Finally,in cultures that have possessed the Bible for many generationstradition plays a role. A previous translation of a particular versemay be so well known that, unless it is seriously wrong, it ispreferable to let it stand than to “modernize” it.Conversely, tradition may so change the meaning of “biblical”words (such as “saint”) that verses containing them needto be retranslated.

Asa result of all these decisions, there is scope for many differenttranslations even in a single language. Where several translationsexist, serious study should always include comparison betweentranslations along with the use of commentaries. Where availableresources as yet permit only one translation in a language, the typeof translation to be produced must be chosen with great care. Ineither case, new translations will always be needed. On the one hand,although God’s word never changes, scholars can improve ourtextual, linguistic, and exegetical understanding of the Hebrew andGreek originals. On the other hand, the human languages into whichthe Bible is translated are in a process of constant change.

Gender-NeutralTranslations

RecentEnglish-language translations have grappled in particular with thequestion of gender neutrality. All languages differ in the way theydenote gender. Until recently, the masculine gender in English wasalso the inclusive gender; hence, “man” could simply mean“person” or “humanity.” In many cases, thebiblical languages work the same way, so that the older dynamictranslations could, like formal correspondence translations, mirrorthe original. Feminist concerns, however, have changed English usage.It is increasingly unacceptable to use the masculine genderinclusively, and everyday language now substitutes plurals (“person,”or “they” with singular meaning) or expansions (“manor woman,” “he or she”). This introduces adivergence between formal correspondence translations, which preservethe gender usage of the original, and functional equivalencetranslations, which prefer inclusive forms to masculine forms if themeaning of the original is entirely inclusive. To complicate mattersfurther, many careful readers of Scripture disagree on wheremasculine nuances exist and how important they are, in each specificinstance, to the meaning of the text.

In the OT, the Hebrew words ruakh (“breath, spirit”)and neshamah (“blast, spirit”) are the standard terms,even collectively translated “wind.” Constructively,these terms reflect the vibrant relationship between God andhumankind. However, God’s “breath” can also be anagent of judgment. So “breath/wind” is the invasive powerof God—proof of his supremacy—capable of disruption ortransformation of human life.

Itis in human creation that God’s breath is given one of its mostdynamic illustrations. Formed of “dust” (’apar),the human being must be enlivened by the Creator’s breath. Inthe OT, human flesh remains dormant and helplessly passive until Godbreathes; then a living human being (nepesh) is animated (Gen. 2:7;6:17; cf. Pss. 33:6; 104:29). “Soul” (nepesh) must bethought of in a holistic way in the OT, not as part of a dualism:“Praise the Lord, my soul; all my inmost being, praise his holyname” (Ps. 103:1). For human existence, “breath” isGod’s gracious gift that mortals cannot “possess.”Reflecting on this, the psalmist writes, “When you take awaytheir breath, they die and return to the dust” (Ps. 104:29; cf.Gen. 7:22). Theologically, Israel understood that life is utterlydependent on God; the “self” has no permanent propertiesof its own.

“Breath/wind”is also a powerful force in God’s anger, when a “blast ofbreath from his nostrils” can undo and destroy (2 Sam.22:16). Similarly, a “strong east wind” rolls back theRed Sea for the Israelites’ crossing (Exod. 14:21), but thevery same force is the undoing of Pharaoh’s army, which wasdestroyed as God, Israel’s warrior, “blew” with his“breath” (Exod. 15:10). Whether in the aimless waters ofcreation (Gen. 1:2; 8:1) or the mighty waters of “un-creation”(Exod. 15:10), the same cosmic might of God’s ruakh is evident.

Notsurprisingly, themes combining breath, wind, and spirit are also usedto describe new creation (Ezek. 37:9). The life-generating force ofthe ruakh/spirit emerges in the NT as the Holy Spirit, manifested inwind, a breath, or Spirit (Gk. pneuma). At Pentecost “a violentwind came from heaven,” enacting another creation (Acts 2:2).John clearly symbolizes Jesus’ “breathing” on thedisciples (John 20:22). Not only does this illustrate John’stheology of being born “from above” (3:3 NRSV), but also“he breathed” reenacts the enlivening of Gen. 2:7. Thetwo creations are connected: God’s enlivening in Gen. 2:7 andJesus’ creation of eternal life following his own resurrection.

Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).

Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).

Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).

Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).

Unlike the OT, which describes and mandates the observation of a number of religious festivals in ancient Israel, the NT does not describe an annual cycle of Christian holidays. Nevertheless, from an early date Christians have observed a liturgical calendar commemorating events of the Gospels, Acts, and later church history. Among other things, the distinctively Christian calendar may have functioned as an important distinction between early Christianity and Judaism (see Gal. 4:10).

In Western Christianity, the church year is organized around two cycles of holidays associated with Nativity (or Christmas) and Easter, respectively (the Eastern Orthodox Church year, which is not discussed here, differs from the Western calendar in several ways). The year begins between November 27 and December 3 (inclusive) on the fourth Sunday before Nativity, the date of which is immovably fixed on December 25. Nativity is thus preceded by an Advent season of approximately four weeks. Christmastide lasts for twelve days, from December 25 to January 6, the feast of Epiphany. In Western tradition Epiphany commemorates the visit of the magi (Matt. 2:1–12).

The second major cycle of holidays revolves around Easter, the date of which is based partly on astronomical observation and thus occurs on a different date from year to year. Easter commemorates Jesus’ resurrection and always occurs on a Sunday (see Matt. 28:1 pars.), as early as March 22 and as late as April 25. It is preceded by the forty-day fast of Lent, beginning with Ash Wednesday. The week immediately preceding Easter is Holy Week, beginning with Palm Sunday (Mark 11:8) and including Maundy Thursday (the Last Supper), Good Friday (the crucifixion), and Holy Saturday (or the Easter Vigil). The season of Easter extends fifty days (beginning with Holy Saturday) to Pentecost (Acts 2:1).

The two major cycles are separated by the seasons of Ordinary (“counting”) Time, between January 6 and Ash Wednesday, and between Pentecost and Advent. These periods must vary in duration from year to year to account for the moveable date of Easter. They are referred to as Epiphany and Pentecost in some traditions.

In addition to the major holidays described above, the church year includes feasts and commemorations of figures from the NT and early Christian history, the most prominent of which are Trinity Sunday (Sunday after Pentecost), All Saints’ Day (November 1), and Christ the King Sunday (last Sunday before Advent). Other days commemorate individual saints or events in the life of Jesus.

Unlike the OT, which describes and mandates the observation of a number of religious festivals in ancient Israel, the NT does not describe an annual cycle of Christian holidays. Nevertheless, from an early date Christians have observed a liturgical calendar commemorating events of the Gospels, Acts, and later church history. Among other things, the distinctively Christian calendar may have functioned as an important distinction between early Christianity and Judaism (see Gal. 4:10).

In Western Christianity, the church year is organized around two cycles of holidays associated with Nativity (or Christmas) and Easter, respectively (the Eastern Orthodox Church year, which is not discussed here, differs from the Western calendar in several ways). The year begins between November 27 and December 3 (inclusive) on the fourth Sunday before Nativity, the date of which is immovably fixed on December 25. Nativity is thus preceded by an Advent season of approximately four weeks. Christmastide lasts for twelve days, from December 25 to January 6, the feast of Epiphany. In Western tradition Epiphany commemorates the visit of the magi (Matt. 2:1–12).

The second major cycle of holidays revolves around Easter, the date of which is based partly on astronomical observation and thus occurs on a different date from year to year. Easter commemorates Jesus’ resurrection and always occurs on a Sunday (see Matt. 28:1 pars.), as early as March 22 and as late as April 25. It is preceded by the forty-day fast of Lent, beginning with Ash Wednesday. The week immediately preceding Easter is Holy Week, beginning with Palm Sunday (Mark 11:8) and including Maundy Thursday (the Last Supper), Good Friday (the crucifixion), and Holy Saturday (or the Easter Vigil). The season of Easter extends fifty days (beginning with Holy Saturday) to Pentecost (Acts 2:1).

The two major cycles are separated by the seasons of Ordinary (“counting”) Time, between January 6 and Ash Wednesday, and between Pentecost and Advent. These periods must vary in duration from year to year to account for the moveable date of Easter. They are referred to as Epiphany and Pentecost in some traditions.

In addition to the major holidays described above, the church year includes feasts and commemorations of figures from the NT and early Christian history, the most prominent of which are Trinity Sunday (Sunday after Pentecost), All Saints’ Day (November 1), and Christ the King Sunday (last Sunday before Advent). Other days commemorate individual saints or events in the life of Jesus.

The Diaspora (or the Dispersion) generally refers to Jewsliving outside the land of Israel. Especially by the first centuryAD, Jews lived throughout the Mediterranean world and Mesopotamia.Large populations of Jews lived in Egypt and in Babylon/Persia. TwoJewish communities in Egypt established temples: at Elephantinesometime from the fifth through the fourth centuries BC, and atLeontopolis in the second century BC.

Accordingto 2 Kings 17:1–41, the first major relocation of Israelitesoccurred forcibly around 722 BC, when Samaria fell to SargonII,king of Assyria. As punishment for breaking their subject obligationsto Assyria, Sargon deported many Israelites elsewhere in the AssyrianEmpire, a usual Assyrian practice. The Bible also records thedeportations of Judeans by Babylon around the end of the seventh andbeginning of the sixth century BC (2Kings 24–25; Jer. 21;25; 27; 29; 39; 52). It explains these forced dispersions, or exiles,as punishments for breaking covenant obligations to Yahweh (Lev.26:31–39; Deut. 28:64–67). The Bible also notes some Jewsrelocating voluntarily (Jer. 40–43). Voluntary relocationslikely constitute the primary source for Jews in the Diaspora.

Accordingto Acts, Christianity’s spread was inseparably tied to theDiaspora. The initial large “conversion” that Actsrecords, at Pentecost, involves Jews from the Diaspora who havetraveled to Jerusalem for the festival (Acts 2:5–13).Throughout the rest of Acts, the apostles and missionaries findrefuge and audiences among many Diaspora Jewish communities. Evenafter Paul declares that he will turn to the Gentiles because theJews have rejected the message (Acts 13:44–52), Diasporacommunities continue to provide travel destinations and audiences forhim (e.g., Acts 17:1–4, 10–12, 17; 18:1–11, 19;28:17–30). Some NT authors label their recipients as those inthe Diaspora (or Dispersion), perhaps a Christianizing deployment ofthe term (James 1:1; 1Pet. 1:1–2).

In Christian theology, doctrine is the synthesis of Christianteaching, especially as set forth in its various related themes. Theearly disciples frequently referred to the teachings of Christ and tothe teachings of the apostles and the church. These were memorized,compiled, and passed through the generations in the church (2Tim.2). As early as Acts 2 reference is made to the teaching of theapostles and the devotion of the church to it. By the second century,a body of teaching had crystallized into a doctrinal treatise calledthe Didache. Doctrinal teaching as a set structure is especiallyemphasized in the Pastoral Epistles, such that it has caused some toconjecture a later date and early catholic outlook for those letters.Regardless of the validity of this postulation, these lettersevidence an early doctrinal and confessional outlook within thechurch.

Thiswas, of course, nothing new, since the Israelites had a body ofteaching that they had passed on through the generations: the law,both written and oral. For the Israelites, the law, both written andoral, was memorized, taught, interpreted, and heeded through all ofsociety. The church simply followed suit in forming its teachings.

Inthe NT two words, didachē and didaskalia, are commonlytranslated “teaching” and in some cases are rendered bysome translations as “doctrine.” The term didachēappears more widely throughout the NT, whereas didaskalia is usedlargely in the Pastoral Epistles (referring to both the content andthe act of teaching). The term didaskalia is sometimes used with theterm logos when the latter indicates sound speech (Titus 2:7–8)and words of the faith (1Tim. 4:6). In fact, in one verse inthe Pastoral Epistles all three terms are used together as “thefaithful word,” “in accordance with the teaching,”and “in sound doctrine” (Titus 1:9 NASB).

Thefirst body of teaching for the church is the teaching of Jesus (Matt.7:28), such as that found in the Sermon on the Mount, where Jesusnotes the ethic of his messiahship and his followers. The teaching ofJesus, which is authoritative (Mark 1:22, 27), and confrontational(Mark 12:38), is an astonishing answer to the religious leaders(Matt. 22:33; cf. Luke 4:32). Jesus notes the vanity of teaching thehuman commandments as if they were the doctrine from God (Mark 7:7).When questioned, Jesus sets forth his teaching as from the Father(John 7:16–17). The chief priests seek to destroy both Jesusand his followers because of the teaching (Mark 11:18; John 18:19;Acts 5:28). On Cyprus the proconsul is astonished at the doctrine ofChrist taught by Paul (Acts 13:12), and in Athens Paul’steaching about Christ is new and unusual to those of the Areopagus(Acts 17:18–20).

ForPaul, doctrine is fundamental for believers. He notes the commitmentto the teaching of Christ after conversion as normative for the Romanbelievers (Rom. 6:17), and he instructs further that they keep an eyeout for those who cause division and hinder adherence to sounddoctrine (Rom. 16:17). In fact, God has given gifted people to thebody for building up the saints to avoid such doctrinal problems(Eph. 4:12–14). Further, a straightforward expression ofteaching has priority over gifts such as tongues (1Cor. 14:6,26). Paul also points out that the Colossian heresy is the doctrineof human beings rather than that of God (Col. 2:22).

Inthe Pastoral Epistles the injunction from Paul to Timothy is that hebe nourished on and persevere in sound doctrine (1Tim. 4:6, 16)and set forth doctrine in preaching (1Tim. 4:13 [along withpublic reading of Scripture]; 2Tim. 4:2). All this is certainlyfitting for Timothy, as he has followed the teaching of Paul (2Tim.3:10). The injunction to Titus is to hold to the word and to thesound doctrine and teaching as he corrects the church (Titus 1:9).Those who are servants are encouraged to show honesty and good faith,so that the teaching of the Savior will be respected (Titus 2:10). Itis clear for Paul that Scripture is the basis of doctrine (2Tim.3:16). This doctrine (teaching) will be tolerated by few; as a whole,sound doctrine will be rejected in favor of a message more palatableto human interest (2Tim. 4:3). The task of the servant of Godis to stand against heterodox teaching (1Tim. 1:3; 6:3).Heterodoxy leads to heteropraxy (1Tim. 1:10). Paul notes thedoctrine of demons, false teaching that is ultimately based insatanic teaching (1Tim. 4:1).

Theinjunction of the writer to the Hebrews is that they are not tosubmit to strange teachings, which deny grace (13:9). This accordswith the book’s argument as a whole. For John, staying in thedoctrine of Christ is salvific, but going outside it is not (2John9). John’s readers are not to receive those who pervert thedoctrine of Christ (2John 10).

Inthe book of Revelation, Jesus warns the church at Pergamum about thefalse teaching of Balaam (2:14) and that of the Nicolaitans (2:15).The church at Thyatira is likewise warned to shun the teachings ofthe false prophetess known as “Jezebel” (2:20,24).

Although the Bible does acknowledge the limited value ofalcohol or inebriation as a palliative (Prov. 31:6–7),drunkenness is generally presented as the cause of all sorts ofproblems in life: woe, sorrow, strife, bruises, red eyes, lust (Prov.23:29–35), poverty (Prov. 23:21), staggering, vomiting, loss ofdiscernment (Isa. 28:7–8), and public shame (Hab. 2:15; cf.Gen. 9:21). Drunkenness is named as a mark of the disobedient son(Deut. 21:20–21; cf. Luke 15:11–13). It is also acharacteristically negative feature in several incidents (e.g., theincest in Lot’s family [Gen. 19:33–35]; David’splan to cover up his adultery [2Sam. 11:13]; assassinations ofAmnon, Elah, Ben-Hadad and his allies [2Sam. 13:28; 1Kings16:9; 20:16]; Nabal’s feast of wine [1Sam. 25:36]),although it is mistakenly attributed to Hannah in prayer (1Sam.1:13) and the disciples on the Pentecost (Acts 2:13). Drunkenness ofcivic and religious leaders represents the religious and moralcorruption of God’s people (Isa. 5:11–12, 22–23;28:1, 3; 28:7–8; 56:11–12; Amos 2:12; 6:6). It is alsomentioned as a characteristic of the wicked servant (Matt. 24:49) anda sign of division among the believers (1Cor.11:21).

Inthe OT, therefore, abstinence from strong drink not only is regardedas a virtue of the leaders of society (Prov. 31:4–5; Eccles.10:16–17) but also is required of those who should maintainspiritual purity (priests on duty [Lev. 10:9; Ezek. 44:21]; Naziritesduring their vows [Num. 6:3–4; cf. Judg. 13:7]; cf. voluntaryabstainers [Jer. 35:6; Dan. 1:8]). In the NT sobriety is required ofall believers in Christ (Gal. 5:21; Eph. 5:18; especially living inthe last days [Luke 21:34; 1Thess. 5:7]), particularly churchleaders (1Tim. 3:2–3; Titus 1:7–8;2:2–3).

Drunkennessis also a metaphor widely employed in the Bible (e.g., storm-tossedsailors [Ps. 107:27]; Jeremiah before God [Jer. 23:9]; the spiritualadultery of the kings of the earth [Rev. 17:2]; slaughter [Deut.32:42; Jer. 46:10; Rev. 17:6]). Notably, drunkenness signifies God’sjudgment (Jer. 13:13; Ezek. 23:33), and Isaiah frequently comparesdrunkenness to the lack of discernment and wisdom among the leadersof society (Isa. 19:13–14; 24:20; 29:9–10; 63:6; also Job12:25). A wine cup also symbolizes God’s wrath (Ps. 75:8; Isa.51:17, 22; Jer. 25:15–28; 51:7; Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:31–34;Hab. 2:16; Matt. 20:22–23; 26:39, 42; John 18:11; Rev.14:10;16:19).

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

Elam is one of the oldest of the ancient civilizations,lasting from 2700 BC to 539 BC. Ancient Elam originally consisted ofkingdoms on the Iranian Plateau, centered in Anshan. Later, Susa inthe Khuzistan lowlands became prominent in documentation of theElamite civilization. The kings of Elam in the second and firstmillennia BC customarily called themselves “King of Anshan andSusa.” Despite progress made by researchers in the last fewdecades, the history of Elam is still one of the least known of theancient Near Eastern civilizations. Most of the evidence comes fromMesopotamian royal inscriptions, where Elam is portrayed as being inconstant contact, either friendly or hostile, with Babylon andAssyria. Elam’s natural resources (e.g., metals, wood, stone)and its location en route to the sources of certain highly desirablematerials (e.g., lapis lazuli, tin) made Elam an object of periodicmilitary campaigns of Mesopotamian kings.

Elamappears in various books of the Bible (e.g., Ezra 4:9; Isa. 11:11;21:2; 22:6; Jer. 25:25; 49:34–39; Ezek. 32:24; Dan. 8:2; Acts2:9), including Gen. 14, where Kedorlaomer, king of Elam, ismentioned as one of the kings of the east who defeated the five kingsof Sodom and Gomorrah. In the second millennium Elam was a powerfulstate, so much so that even King Hammurabi addressed an Elamite kingas “Father.” It is therefore possible that an Elamiteking led a coalition of kings on a raid against Canaan. Elam, latersubjugated by Assyria during the Assyrian ascendancy (732–604BC), assisted in its war against Israel. The reference to Elam inIsaiah and Ezekiel (cited above) may be related to this historicalfact. During the Achae-menid period, in which the traits of Elamitecivilization were still strong, “Elam” was used as ageneral reference to the Persian province on the Iranian plateau(e.g., Dan. 8:2: “I saw myself in the citadel of Susa in theprovince of Elam”). In the NT era, Elam, albeit long gone fromhistory, occupied an established place in the view of world historyseen as a sequence of world empires (cf. Acts 2:9).

The Israelites gathered regularly to celebrate their relationship with God. Such festivals were marked by communal meals, music, singing, dancing, and sacrifices. They celebrated, conscious that God had graciously brought them into a relationship with him. Within this covenant he had committed himself to act on their behalf both in regular ways, such as the harvest, and in exceptional ways, such as deliverance from Egypt. At the festivals, Israel celebrated God’s work in its past, present, and future and reaffirmed its relationship with this covenant God.

We know of Israel’s festivals from several calendars in the Mosaic legislation (Exod. 23:14–17; 34:18–23; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17), calendars further clarified by the prophets (e.g., Ezek. 45:18–25; Zech. 14), and narrative material (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23). Some read discrepancies between calendars as evidence of multiple sources, but this fails to account for the various purposes that these calendars served. The narrative and prophetic passages suggest that Israel did not observe these festivals as frequently as, and in the ways, God intended (e.g., Amos 8:5), but when Israel sought to renew its relationship with God, it often did so with a festival (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23).

Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread

Israel’s religious calendar began with Passover, the day set aside to commemorate deliverance from Egypt. Occurring in spring, this single day was joined with a weeklong celebration known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread, during which all males were required to make a pilgrimage to the sanctuary and offer the firstfruits of the barley harvest (Lev. 23:9–14). Israel observed Passover with rituals that reactualized the night God’s destroyer spared the Israelites in Egypt. A lamb was killed, and its blood was put on the doorposts of the homes and on the bronze altar in the sanctuary. The lamb was roasted and served with unleavened bread and bitter herbs while those partaking—dressed in their traveling clothes—listened to the retelling of the exodus story. No yeast was to be found anywhere among them, no work was to be done on the first and last days of the festival, and offerings were to be brought to the sanctuary (Num. 9:1–5; Josh. 5:10–11; 2Kings 23:21–23; 2Chron. 30; 35:1–19).

Early Christians associated Jesus’ death with that of the Passover lamb (1Cor. 5:7–8), encouraged by Jesus’ comments at the Last Supper (described by the Synoptic Gospels as a Passover meal [e.g., Matt. 26:17–30]). Perhaps Jesus meant to emphasize that just as Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread reminded God’s people of his deliverance and provision, his followers would find true freedom and full provision in him.

The Festival of Weeks

Also known as the Festival of Harvest, the Day of Firstfruits, or Pentecost (because it occurred fifty days after Passover), the Festival of Weeks took place on the sixth day of the third month (corresponding to our May or June). This marked another occasion when all Jewish men were required to come to the sanctuary. They were to bring an offering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, abstain from work, and devote themselves to rejoicing in God’s goodness.

Early in the NT period, if not before, this festival also became associated with the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. The Jews who assembled in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost as described in Acts 2 came to celebrate not only God’s provision but also the revelation of his nature and will. Significantly, God chose this day to send the Holy Spirit, the One who would produce a harvest of believers and reveal God more fully to the world.

The Festival of Tabernacles

So important was the Festival of Tabernacles (also known as the Festival of Ingathering or the Festival of Booths) that Israel sometimes referred to it as “the festival of the Lord” (Judg. 21:19) or simply “the festival” (cf. 1Kings 8:65). Held from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the seventh month (September–October), this was the third of the three pilgrimage festivals. For that week, Israel lived in booths to remind them of their ancestors’ time in the wilderness. They also celebrated the fruit harvest. They were to “take the fruit of majestic trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice” before God for seven days (Lev. 23:40 NRSV). Avoiding all work on the first and last days of the festival, they were to mark the week with sacrifices, celebration, and joy. Also, every seventh year the law was to be read at this festival (Deut. 31:10–11).

The Mishnah, a collection of rabbinic laws compiled around AD 200 but often reflecting earlier traditions, records how Israel observed this festival during the early Roman period. As part of the celebration, men danced and sang in the courtyard of the temple while Levites, standing on the steps that led down from the court of the Israelites, played harps, lyres, cymbals, and other instruments. Two priests blew trumpets—one long blast, then a quavering one, then another long blast—while walking toward the eastern gate. When they reached the gate, they turned back toward the temple and said, “Our fathers when they were in this place turned with their backs toward the Temple of the Lord and their faces toward the east, and they worshiped the sun toward the east [referring to the apostasy of the Jews as described by Ezekiel]; but as for us, our eyes are turned toward the Lord” (m.Sukkah 5:4). Another part of this festival involved the drawing of water for a libation offering from the Pool of Siloam with great ceremony and joy. John 7 records Jesus’ secretive departure to Jerusalem for the Festival of Tabernacles, where he spent several days teaching in the temple courts. It was on the last and greatest day of the festival when Jesus invited those thirsty to come to him and drink.

The Festival of Trumpets

Occurring on the first day of the seventh month (September–October), this feast marked the beginning of the civil and agricultural year for the Jews; it was also referred to as Rosh Hashanah (lit., “head/beginning of the year”). Observed as a Sabbath with sacrifices and trumpet blasts, this day was intended for rest and to begin preparations for the coming Day of Atonement. The Mishnah makes this connection more explicit by identifying the Festival of Trumpets as the day when “all that come into the world pass before [God] like legions of soldiers” or flocks of sheep to be judged (m.Rosh HaSh.1:2).

The Day of Atonement

Some festivals, like Passover, looked back to what God had done or was doing for his people; other festivals, like Trumpets and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), focused on the relationship itself. The latter was marked by repentance and rituals designed to remove the nation’s sins and restore fellowship with God. Coming ten days after the Festival of Trumpets, this was a solemn occasion during which the Israelites abstained from eating, drinking, and other activities. This was the only prescribed annual fast in the Jewish calendar, though other fasts were added in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn the Babylonian exile (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19).

In Leviticus, God clarified the purpose of this day: “On this day atonement will be made for you, to cleanse you. Then, before the Lord, you will be clean from all your sins” (16:30). Not only would the people be purified, but so also would the sanctuary, so that God could continue to meet his people there. Sacrifices were offered for both priest and people, and the blood was taken into the most holy place. Only on Yom Kippur could this room be entered, and only by the high priest, who sprinkled blood on the cover of the ark of the covenant. Leaving that room, he also sprinkled blood in the holy place (16:14–17) and then on the bronze altar in the courtyard.

Yom Kippur was marked by another ritual that symbolized the removal of Israel’s sins, this one involving two goats. One goat, chosen by lot, was offered as a sacrifice to God. The high priest placed his hands on the other goat and transferred to it the sins of the nation. He then released the goat into the wilderness, for “the goat will carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (Lev. 16:22).

The Mishnah describes how this day was observed when the second temple stood. The high priest, having been carefully prepared, washed, and clothed, placed both hands on the head of a bull and confessed his own sins. After this, the lots were drawn for the goats; the goat to be sacrificed had a thread tied around its throat, while the other had a scarlet thread bound around its head. When the high priest had confessed the sins of the priests over the bull, it was slaughtered, and its blood was collected in a basin. Taking coals from the bronze altar and incense from the holy place, he then entered the holy of holies. There he placed the incense on the coals, filling the room with smoke to obscure the ark from his view. Returning to the holy place, he offered a short prayer, lest he pray too long and “put Israel in terror” that he had died performing the ritual. He returned to the courtyard and took the basin of blood back into the most holy place. Dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it with a whipping motion, and repeated this seven times. He did the same with the blood of the goat chosen for sacrifice, and then he poured out the remaining blood at the base of the bronze altar.

Then the high priest laid his hands on the head of the scapegoat and said, “O God, thy people, the House of Israel, have committed iniquity, transgressed, and sinned before thee. O God, forgive, I pray, the iniquities and transgressions and sins which thy people, the House of Israel, have committed and transgressed and sinned before thee; as it is written in the law of thy servant Moses...” (m.Yoma 6:2). The goat was then led outside Jerusalem, where it was pushed down a ravine to its death, apparently to keep it from wandering back into the city.

The Mishnah recognized that rituals alone were insufficient for true forgiveness, for it contains this warning: “If a man said, ‘I will sin and repent, and sin again and repent,’ he will be given no chance to repent. [If he said,] ‘I will sin and the Day of Atonement will effect atonement,’ then the Day of Atonement effects no atonement. For transgressions that are between man and God the Day of Atonement effects atonement, but for transgressions that are between a man and his fellow the Day of Atonement effects atonement only if he has appeased his fellow” (m.Yoma 8:9).

The book of Hebrews uses the symbols of Yom Kippur to describe Jesus’ death. As the high priest entered the most holy place, so Jesus entered God’s presence, carrying not the blood of bull and goat but his own. His once-for-all death at the “culmination of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) not only allows him to remain in God’s presence (10:12) but also gives us access to God’s presence as well (10:19–22).

Sabbath Year

Every seven years, the Israelites were to observe a “Sabbath of the land” (Lev. 25:6 ESV), a time for the land to rest. They could not sow fields or prune vineyards, but they could eat what grew of itself (Lev. 25:1–7). Deuteronomy 15:1–11 speaks of all debts being canceled (some would say deferred) every seventh year, presumably the same year the land was to lie fallow. When Israel was gathered at the Festival of Tabernacles during this Sabbath Year, the law of Moses was to be read aloud. The Chronicler described the seventy years of Babylonian exile as “sabbaths” for the land, perhaps alluding to the neglect of the Sabbath Year (2Chron. 36:21; cf. Lev. 26:43). Those returning from exile expressed their intent to keep this provision (Neh. 10:31), and it appears to have been observed in the intertestamental period (see 1Macc. 6:48–53; Josephus, Ant. 14.202–10).

This year seems intended to maintain the fertility of the land and to allow Israel’s economy to “reset,” equalizing wealth and limiting poverty. Observing such a provision took great faith and firm allegiance, for they had to trust God for daily bread and put obedience above profit. Rereading the law at the Festival of Tabernacles reminded the Israelites of God’s gracious covenant and their required response.

Jubilee

God instructed Israel to count off seven “sevens” of years and in the fiftieth year, beginning on the Day of Atonement, to sound a trumpet marking the Jubilee Year. As in the Sabbath Year, there was to be no sowing and reaping. Further, the land was released from its current owners and returned to those families to whom it originally belonged. Individual Israelites who had become indentured through economic distress were to be freed. The assumption underlying the Jubilee Year was that everything belonged to God. He owned the land and its occupants; the Israelites were only tenants and stewards (Lev. 25:23, 55). As their covenant lord, he would provide for their needs even during back-to-back Sabbath Years (Lev. 25:21). The year began on the Day of Atonement, perhaps to emphasize that the best response to God’s redemptive mercy is faith in his provision and mercy to others. Although the Jubilee Year is commanded in the Mosaic law and spoken about by the prophets (Isa. 61:1–2; Ezek. 46:17), rabbis, and Jesus (Luke 4:18–19), Scripture is silent on how or if Israel observed this year.

New Moon

The beginning of each month was marked with the sounding of trumpets, rejoicing, and sacrifices (Num. 10:10; 28:11–15). There is some indication that work was to be suspended on this day, as on the Sabbath (Amos 8:5), and that people gathered for a meal (1Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27). By faithfully observing this day, Israel was in a position to properly observe the remaining days, set up, as they were, on the lunar calendar. Paul learned of some in Colossae who were giving undue attention to New Moon celebrations (Col. 2:16).

Purim

Beyond the festivals commanded in the law of Moses, the Jews added two more to their sacred calendar, one during the postexilic period and one between the Testaments. Both commemorated God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies. A wave of anti-Semitic persecution swept over the Jews living in Persia during the reign of Xerxes (486–465 BC). God delivered his people through Esther, and the Jews celebrated this deliverance with the festival of Purim. Their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival “Purim,” meaning “lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February-March) with “feasting and joy and giving presents of food to one another and gifts to the poor” (Esther9:22).

Festival of Dedication

During the intertestamental period, the Jews came under great persecution from the Seleucids, who outlawed the practice of Judaism and desecrated the Jerusalem temple. After recapturing the temple, the Jews began the process of purification. On the twenty-fifth day of their ninth month, in the year 164 BC, the Jews rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar of burnt offering which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of hymns, zithers, lyres and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the gentiles had originally profaned it. The whole people fell prostrate in adoration and then praised Heaven who had granted them success. For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering burnt offerings, communion and thanksgiving sacrifices.... Judas [Maccabees], with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication of the altar should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of the month of Chislev [December], with rejoicing and gladness. (1Macc. 4:52–56, 59 NJB)

Summary

What did God want to impress on his people by commanding and permitting these specific festivals? First, these festivals reminded Israel of God’s help in the past, how he delivered them from Egypt, provided for them in the wilderness wanderings, or protected them from their enemies. Second, the festivals were occasions to celebrate God’s present provision. He had promised to provide for his covenant partner; the festivals, especially those timed to occur at the harvest, were occasions to celebrate how faithfully he had kept that promise for another year and opportunities to commit to providing for the needs of others.

The festivals prompted the Israelites not only to look back to God’s help in the past and recognize God’s help in the present, but also to look ahead, anticipating the promised consummation. The OT announced God’s intention to bring all nations into full allegiance, and the festivals were occasions to anticipate that day. Isaiah spoke of a festival in which all the nations would share: “On this mountain the Lord Almighty will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine—the best of meats and the finest of wines” (Isa. 25:6). God promised to bless “foreigners who bind themselves to the Lord to minister to him, to love the name of the Lord, and to be his servants, all who keep the Sabbath without desecrating it and who hold fast to my covenant—these I will bring to my holy mountain and give them joy in my house of prayer. Their burnt offerings and sacrifices will be accepted on my altar; for my house will be called a house of prayer for all nations” (Isa. 56:6–7). Micah predicted a day when the nations would go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Mic. 4:1–5), and Zephaniah anticipated when God would “purify the lips of the peoples, that all of them may call on the name of the Lord and serve him shoulder to shoulder,” even bringing offerings to the temple (Zeph. 3:9–10). According to Zechariah, a time was coming when “the survivors from all the nations that have attacked Jerusalem will go up year after year to worship the King, the Lord Almighty, and to celebrate the Festival of Tabernacles” (Zech. 14:16). Israel’s festivals allowed them to look back at what God had done, was doing, and was going to do for them and, through them, for the whole world.

The Israelites experienced a wide range of emotions during these festivals, but the prevailing emotion was joy. They rejoiced in their selection by God, living “together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), in God’s deliverance, provision, and protection, and in the hope of God’s consummation of his plan. Over and over, God instructed them to gather and rejoice in his presence, suggesting a fourth insight: a God who desires his people’s happiness must love his people.

Finally, the festivals were occasions to recognize God’s rule over Israel. Especially in an agricultural economy such as Israel’s, to refrain from work on the Sabbath and on festival days was to confess God’s sovereignty over time and to admit dependence on God. To leave house and fields and travel to Jerusalem confessed faith in God to protect. Offerings of firstfruits confessed that the whole harvest came from God. When they gathered, it was in the sanctuary, God’s palace, yet another reminder that God was Israel’s king, and they were his subjects.

The Israelites gathered regularly to celebrate their relationship with God. Such festivals were marked by communal meals, music, singing, dancing, and sacrifices. They celebrated, conscious that God had graciously brought them into a relationship with him. Within this covenant he had committed himself to act on their behalf both in regular ways, such as the harvest, and in exceptional ways, such as deliverance from Egypt. At the festivals, Israel celebrated God’s work in its past, present, and future and reaffirmed its relationship with this covenant God.

We know of Israel’s festivals from several calendars in the Mosaic legislation (Exod. 23:14–17; 34:18–23; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17), calendars further clarified by the prophets (e.g., Ezek. 45:18–25; Zech. 14), and narrative material (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23). Some read discrepancies between calendars as evidence of multiple sources, but this fails to account for the various purposes that these calendars served. The narrative and prophetic passages suggest that Israel did not observe these festivals as frequently as, and in the ways, God intended (e.g., Amos 8:5), but when Israel sought to renew its relationship with God, it often did so with a festival (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23).

Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread

Israel’s religious calendar began with Passover, the day set aside to commemorate deliverance from Egypt. Occurring in spring, this single day was joined with a weeklong celebration known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread, during which all males were required to make a pilgrimage to the sanctuary and offer the firstfruits of the barley harvest (Lev. 23:9–14). Israel observed Passover with rituals that reactualized the night God’s destroyer spared the Israelites in Egypt. A lamb was killed, and its blood was put on the doorposts of the homes and on the bronze altar in the sanctuary. The lamb was roasted and served with unleavened bread and bitter herbs while those partaking—dressed in their traveling clothes—listened to the retelling of the exodus story. No yeast was to be found anywhere among them, no work was to be done on the first and last days of the festival, and offerings were to be brought to the sanctuary (Num. 9:1–5; Josh. 5:10–11; 2Kings 23:21–23; 2Chron. 30; 35:1–19).

Early Christians associated Jesus’ death with that of the Passover lamb (1Cor. 5:7–8), encouraged by Jesus’ comments at the Last Supper (described by the Synoptic Gospels as a Passover meal [e.g., Matt. 26:17–30]). Perhaps Jesus meant to emphasize that just as Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread reminded God’s people of his deliverance and provision, his followers would find true freedom and full provision in him.

The Festival of Weeks

Also known as the Festival of Harvest, the Day of Firstfruits, or Pentecost (because it occurred fifty days after Passover), the Festival of Weeks took place on the sixth day of the third month (corresponding to our May or June). This marked another occasion when all Jewish men were required to come to the sanctuary. They were to bring an offering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, abstain from work, and devote themselves to rejoicing in God’s goodness.

Early in the NT period, if not before, this festival also became associated with the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. The Jews who assembled in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost as described in Acts 2 came to celebrate not only God’s provision but also the revelation of his nature and will. Significantly, God chose this day to send the Holy Spirit, the One who would produce a harvest of believers and reveal God more fully to the world.

The Festival of Tabernacles

So important was the Festival of Tabernacles (also known as the Festival of Ingathering or the Festival of Booths) that Israel sometimes referred to it as “the festival of the Lord” (Judg. 21:19) or simply “the festival” (cf. 1Kings 8:65). Held from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the seventh month (September–October), this was the third of the three pilgrimage festivals. For that week, Israel lived in booths to remind them of their ancestors’ time in the wilderness. They also celebrated the fruit harvest. They were to “take the fruit of majestic trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice” before God for seven days (Lev. 23:40 NRSV). Avoiding all work on the first and last days of the festival, they were to mark the week with sacrifices, celebration, and joy. Also, every seventh year the law was to be read at this festival (Deut. 31:10–11).

The Mishnah, a collection of rabbinic laws compiled around AD 200 but often reflecting earlier traditions, records how Israel observed this festival during the early Roman period. As part of the celebration, men danced and sang in the courtyard of the temple while Levites, standing on the steps that led down from the court of the Israelites, played harps, lyres, cymbals, and other instruments. Two priests blew trumpets—one long blast, then a quavering one, then another long blast—while walking toward the eastern gate. When they reached the gate, they turned back toward the temple and said, “Our fathers when they were in this place turned with their backs toward the Temple of the Lord and their faces toward the east, and they worshiped the sun toward the east [referring to the apostasy of the Jews as described by Ezekiel]; but as for us, our eyes are turned toward the Lord” (m.Sukkah 5:4). Another part of this festival involved the drawing of water for a libation offering from the Pool of Siloam with great ceremony and joy. John 7 records Jesus’ secretive departure to Jerusalem for the Festival of Tabernacles, where he spent several days teaching in the temple courts. It was on the last and greatest day of the festival when Jesus invited those thirsty to come to him and drink.

The Festival of Trumpets

Occurring on the first day of the seventh month (September–October), this feast marked the beginning of the civil and agricultural year for the Jews; it was also referred to as Rosh Hashanah (lit., “head/beginning of the year”). Observed as a Sabbath with sacrifices and trumpet blasts, this day was intended for rest and to begin preparations for the coming Day of Atonement. The Mishnah makes this connection more explicit by identifying the Festival of Trumpets as the day when “all that come into the world pass before [God] like legions of soldiers” or flocks of sheep to be judged (m.Rosh HaSh.1:2).

The Day of Atonement

Some festivals, like Passover, looked back to what God had done or was doing for his people; other festivals, like Trumpets and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), focused on the relationship itself. The latter was marked by repentance and rituals designed to remove the nation’s sins and restore fellowship with God. Coming ten days after the Festival of Trumpets, this was a solemn occasion during which the Israelites abstained from eating, drinking, and other activities. This was the only prescribed annual fast in the Jewish calendar, though other fasts were added in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn the Babylonian exile (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19).

In Leviticus, God clarified the purpose of this day: “On this day atonement will be made for you, to cleanse you. Then, before the Lord, you will be clean from all your sins” (16:30). Not only would the people be purified, but so also would the sanctuary, so that God could continue to meet his people there. Sacrifices were offered for both priest and people, and the blood was taken into the most holy place. Only on Yom Kippur could this room be entered, and only by the high priest, who sprinkled blood on the cover of the ark of the covenant. Leaving that room, he also sprinkled blood in the holy place (16:14–17) and then on the bronze altar in the courtyard.

Yom Kippur was marked by another ritual that symbolized the removal of Israel’s sins, this one involving two goats. One goat, chosen by lot, was offered as a sacrifice to God. The high priest placed his hands on the other goat and transferred to it the sins of the nation. He then released the goat into the wilderness, for “the goat will carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (Lev. 16:22).

The Mishnah describes how this day was observed when the second temple stood. The high priest, having been carefully prepared, washed, and clothed, placed both hands on the head of a bull and confessed his own sins. After this, the lots were drawn for the goats; the goat to be sacrificed had a thread tied around its throat, while the other had a scarlet thread bound around its head. When the high priest had confessed the sins of the priests over the bull, it was slaughtered, and its blood was collected in a basin. Taking coals from the bronze altar and incense from the holy place, he then entered the holy of holies. There he placed the incense on the coals, filling the room with smoke to obscure the ark from his view. Returning to the holy place, he offered a short prayer, lest he pray too long and “put Israel in terror” that he had died performing the ritual. He returned to the courtyard and took the basin of blood back into the most holy place. Dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it with a whipping motion, and repeated this seven times. He did the same with the blood of the goat chosen for sacrifice, and then he poured out the remaining blood at the base of the bronze altar.

Then the high priest laid his hands on the head of the scapegoat and said, “O God, thy people, the House of Israel, have committed iniquity, transgressed, and sinned before thee. O God, forgive, I pray, the iniquities and transgressions and sins which thy people, the House of Israel, have committed and transgressed and sinned before thee; as it is written in the law of thy servant Moses...” (m.Yoma 6:2). The goat was then led outside Jerusalem, where it was pushed down a ravine to its death, apparently to keep it from wandering back into the city.

The Mishnah recognized that rituals alone were insufficient for true forgiveness, for it contains this warning: “If a man said, ‘I will sin and repent, and sin again and repent,’ he will be given no chance to repent. [If he said,] ‘I will sin and the Day of Atonement will effect atonement,’ then the Day of Atonement effects no atonement. For transgressions that are between man and God the Day of Atonement effects atonement, but for transgressions that are between a man and his fellow the Day of Atonement effects atonement only if he has appeased his fellow” (m.Yoma 8:9).

The book of Hebrews uses the symbols of Yom Kippur to describe Jesus’ death. As the high priest entered the most holy place, so Jesus entered God’s presence, carrying not the blood of bull and goat but his own. His once-for-all death at the “culmination of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) not only allows him to remain in God’s presence (10:12) but also gives us access to God’s presence as well (10:19–22).

Sabbath Year

Every seven years, the Israelites were to observe a “Sabbath of the land” (Lev. 25:6 ESV), a time for the land to rest. They could not sow fields or prune vineyards, but they could eat what grew of itself (Lev. 25:1–7). Deuteronomy 15:1–11 speaks of all debts being canceled (some would say deferred) every seventh year, presumably the same year the land was to lie fallow. When Israel was gathered at the Festival of Tabernacles during this Sabbath Year, the law of Moses was to be read aloud. The Chronicler described the seventy years of Babylonian exile as “sabbaths” for the land, perhaps alluding to the neglect of the Sabbath Year (2Chron. 36:21; cf. Lev. 26:43). Those returning from exile expressed their intent to keep this provision (Neh. 10:31), and it appears to have been observed in the intertestamental period (see 1Macc. 6:48–53; Josephus, Ant. 14.202–10).

This year seems intended to maintain the fertility of the land and to allow Israel’s economy to “reset,” equalizing wealth and limiting poverty. Observing such a provision took great faith and firm allegiance, for they had to trust God for daily bread and put obedience above profit. Rereading the law at the Festival of Tabernacles reminded the Israelites of God’s gracious covenant and their required response.

Jubilee

God instructed Israel to count off seven “sevens” of years and in the fiftieth year, beginning on the Day of Atonement, to sound a trumpet marking the Jubilee Year. As in the Sabbath Year, there was to be no sowing and reaping. Further, the land was released from its current owners and returned to those families to whom it originally belonged. Individual Israelites who had become indentured through economic distress were to be freed. The assumption underlying the Jubilee Year was that everything belonged to God. He owned the land and its occupants; the Israelites were only tenants and stewards (Lev. 25:23, 55). As their covenant lord, he would provide for their needs even during back-to-back Sabbath Years (Lev. 25:21). The year began on the Day of Atonement, perhaps to emphasize that the best response to God’s redemptive mercy is faith in his provision and mercy to others. Although the Jubilee Year is commanded in the Mosaic law and spoken about by the prophets (Isa. 61:1–2; Ezek. 46:17), rabbis, and Jesus (Luke 4:18–19), Scripture is silent on how or if Israel observed this year.

New Moon

The beginning of each month was marked with the sounding of trumpets, rejoicing, and sacrifices (Num. 10:10; 28:11–15). There is some indication that work was to be suspended on this day, as on the Sabbath (Amos 8:5), and that people gathered for a meal (1Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27). By faithfully observing this day, Israel was in a position to properly observe the remaining days, set up, as they were, on the lunar calendar. Paul learned of some in Colossae who were giving undue attention to New Moon celebrations (Col. 2:16).

Purim

Beyond the festivals commanded in the law of Moses, the Jews added two more to their sacred calendar, one during the postexilic period and one between the Testaments. Both commemorated God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies. A wave of anti-Semitic persecution swept over the Jews living in Persia during the reign of Xerxes (486–465 BC). God delivered his people through Esther, and the Jews celebrated this deliverance with the festival of Purim. Their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival “Purim,” meaning “lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February-March) with “feasting and joy and giving presents of food to one another and gifts to the poor” (Esther9:22).

Festival of Dedication

During the intertestamental period, the Jews came under great persecution from the Seleucids, who outlawed the practice of Judaism and desecrated the Jerusalem temple. After recapturing the temple, the Jews began the process of purification. On the twenty-fifth day of their ninth month, in the year 164 BC, the Jews rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar of burnt offering which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of hymns, zithers, lyres and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the gentiles had originally profaned it. The whole people fell prostrate in adoration and then praised Heaven who had granted them success. For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering burnt offerings, communion and thanksgiving sacrifices.... Judas [Maccabees], with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication of the altar should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of the month of Chislev [December], with rejoicing and gladness. (1Macc. 4:52–56, 59 NJB)

Summary

What did God want to impress on his people by commanding and permitting these specific festivals? First, these festivals reminded Israel of God’s help in the past, how he delivered them from Egypt, provided for them in the wilderness wanderings, or protected them from their enemies. Second, the festivals were occasions to celebrate God’s present provision. He had promised to provide for his covenant partner; the festivals, especially those timed to occur at the harvest, were occasions to celebrate how faithfully he had kept that promise for another year and opportunities to commit to providing for the needs of others.

The festivals prompted the Israelites not only to look back to God’s help in the past and recognize God’s help in the present, but also to look ahead, anticipating the promised consummation. The OT announced God’s intention to bring all nations into full allegiance, and the festivals were occasions to anticipate that day. Isaiah spoke of a festival in which all the nations would share: “On this mountain the Lord Almighty will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine—the best of meats and the finest of wines” (Isa. 25:6). God promised to bless “foreigners who bind themselves to the Lord to minister to him, to love the name of the Lord, and to be his servants, all who keep the Sabbath without desecrating it and who hold fast to my covenant—these I will bring to my holy mountain and give them joy in my house of prayer. Their burnt offerings and sacrifices will be accepted on my altar; for my house will be called a house of prayer for all nations” (Isa. 56:6–7). Micah predicted a day when the nations would go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Mic. 4:1–5), and Zephaniah anticipated when God would “purify the lips of the peoples, that all of them may call on the name of the Lord and serve him shoulder to shoulder,” even bringing offerings to the temple (Zeph. 3:9–10). According to Zechariah, a time was coming when “the survivors from all the nations that have attacked Jerusalem will go up year after year to worship the King, the Lord Almighty, and to celebrate the Festival of Tabernacles” (Zech. 14:16). Israel’s festivals allowed them to look back at what God had done, was doing, and was going to do for them and, through them, for the whole world.

The Israelites experienced a wide range of emotions during these festivals, but the prevailing emotion was joy. They rejoiced in their selection by God, living “together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), in God’s deliverance, provision, and protection, and in the hope of God’s consummation of his plan. Over and over, God instructed them to gather and rejoice in his presence, suggesting a fourth insight: a God who desires his people’s happiness must love his people.

Finally, the festivals were occasions to recognize God’s rule over Israel. Especially in an agricultural economy such as Israel’s, to refrain from work on the Sabbath and on festival days was to confess God’s sovereignty over time and to admit dependence on God. To leave house and fields and travel to Jerusalem confessed faith in God to protect. Offerings of firstfruits confessed that the whole harvest came from God. When they gathered, it was in the sanctuary, God’s palace, yet another reminder that God was Israel’s king, and they were his subjects.

The Israelites gathered regularly to celebrate their relationship with God. Such festivals were marked by communal meals, music, singing, dancing, and sacrifices. They celebrated, conscious that God had graciously brought them into a relationship with him. Within this covenant he had committed himself to act on their behalf both in regular ways, such as the harvest, and in exceptional ways, such as deliverance from Egypt. At the festivals, Israel celebrated God’s work in its past, present, and future and reaffirmed its relationship with this covenant God.

We know of Israel’s festivals from several calendars in the Mosaic legislation (Exod. 23:14–17; 34:18–23; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17), calendars further clarified by the prophets (e.g., Ezek. 45:18–25; Zech. 14), and narrative material (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23). Some read discrepancies between calendars as evidence of multiple sources, but this fails to account for the various purposes that these calendars served. The narrative and prophetic passages suggest that Israel did not observe these festivals as frequently as, and in the ways, God intended (e.g., Amos 8:5), but when Israel sought to renew its relationship with God, it often did so with a festival (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23).

Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread

Israel’s religious calendar began with Passover, the day set aside to commemorate deliverance from Egypt. Occurring in spring, this single day was joined with a weeklong celebration known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread, during which all males were required to make a pilgrimage to the sanctuary and offer the firstfruits of the barley harvest (Lev. 23:9–14). Israel observed Passover with rituals that reactualized the night God’s destroyer spared the Israelites in Egypt. A lamb was killed, and its blood was put on the doorposts of the homes and on the bronze altar in the sanctuary. The lamb was roasted and served with unleavened bread and bitter herbs while those partaking—dressed in their traveling clothes—listened to the retelling of the exodus story. No yeast was to be found anywhere among them, no work was to be done on the first and last days of the festival, and offerings were to be brought to the sanctuary (Num. 9:1–5; Josh. 5:10–11; 2Kings 23:21–23; 2Chron. 30; 35:1–19).

Early Christians associated Jesus’ death with that of the Passover lamb (1Cor. 5:7–8), encouraged by Jesus’ comments at the Last Supper (described by the Synoptic Gospels as a Passover meal [e.g., Matt. 26:17–30]). Perhaps Jesus meant to emphasize that just as Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread reminded God’s people of his deliverance and provision, his followers would find true freedom and full provision in him.

The Festival of Weeks

Also known as the Festival of Harvest, the Day of Firstfruits, or Pentecost (because it occurred fifty days after Passover), the Festival of Weeks took place on the sixth day of the third month (corresponding to our May or June). This marked another occasion when all Jewish men were required to come to the sanctuary. They were to bring an offering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, abstain from work, and devote themselves to rejoicing in God’s goodness.

Early in the NT period, if not before, this festival also became associated with the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. The Jews who assembled in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost as described in Acts 2 came to celebrate not only God’s provision but also the revelation of his nature and will. Significantly, God chose this day to send the Holy Spirit, the One who would produce a harvest of believers and reveal God more fully to the world.

The Festival of Tabernacles

So important was the Festival of Tabernacles (also known as the Festival of Ingathering or the Festival of Booths) that Israel sometimes referred to it as “the festival of the Lord” (Judg. 21:19) or simply “the festival” (cf. 1Kings 8:65). Held from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the seventh month (September–October), this was the third of the three pilgrimage festivals. For that week, Israel lived in booths to remind them of their ancestors’ time in the wilderness. They also celebrated the fruit harvest. They were to “take the fruit of majestic trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice” before God for seven days (Lev. 23:40 NRSV). Avoiding all work on the first and last days of the festival, they were to mark the week with sacrifices, celebration, and joy. Also, every seventh year the law was to be read at this festival (Deut. 31:10–11).

The Mishnah, a collection of rabbinic laws compiled around AD 200 but often reflecting earlier traditions, records how Israel observed this festival during the early Roman period. As part of the celebration, men danced and sang in the courtyard of the temple while Levites, standing on the steps that led down from the court of the Israelites, played harps, lyres, cymbals, and other instruments. Two priests blew trumpets—one long blast, then a quavering one, then another long blast—while walking toward the eastern gate. When they reached the gate, they turned back toward the temple and said, “Our fathers when they were in this place turned with their backs toward the Temple of the Lord and their faces toward the east, and they worshiped the sun toward the east [referring to the apostasy of the Jews as described by Ezekiel]; but as for us, our eyes are turned toward the Lord” (m.Sukkah 5:4). Another part of this festival involved the drawing of water for a libation offering from the Pool of Siloam with great ceremony and joy. John 7 records Jesus’ secretive departure to Jerusalem for the Festival of Tabernacles, where he spent several days teaching in the temple courts. It was on the last and greatest day of the festival when Jesus invited those thirsty to come to him and drink.

The Festival of Trumpets

Occurring on the first day of the seventh month (September–October), this feast marked the beginning of the civil and agricultural year for the Jews; it was also referred to as Rosh Hashanah (lit., “head/beginning of the year”). Observed as a Sabbath with sacrifices and trumpet blasts, this day was intended for rest and to begin preparations for the coming Day of Atonement. The Mishnah makes this connection more explicit by identifying the Festival of Trumpets as the day when “all that come into the world pass before [God] like legions of soldiers” or flocks of sheep to be judged (m.Rosh HaSh.1:2).

The Day of Atonement

Some festivals, like Passover, looked back to what God had done or was doing for his people; other festivals, like Trumpets and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), focused on the relationship itself. The latter was marked by repentance and rituals designed to remove the nation’s sins and restore fellowship with God. Coming ten days after the Festival of Trumpets, this was a solemn occasion during which the Israelites abstained from eating, drinking, and other activities. This was the only prescribed annual fast in the Jewish calendar, though other fasts were added in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn the Babylonian exile (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19).

In Leviticus, God clarified the purpose of this day: “On this day atonement will be made for you, to cleanse you. Then, before the Lord, you will be clean from all your sins” (16:30). Not only would the people be purified, but so also would the sanctuary, so that God could continue to meet his people there. Sacrifices were offered for both priest and people, and the blood was taken into the most holy place. Only on Yom Kippur could this room be entered, and only by the high priest, who sprinkled blood on the cover of the ark of the covenant. Leaving that room, he also sprinkled blood in the holy place (16:14–17) and then on the bronze altar in the courtyard.

Yom Kippur was marked by another ritual that symbolized the removal of Israel’s sins, this one involving two goats. One goat, chosen by lot, was offered as a sacrifice to God. The high priest placed his hands on the other goat and transferred to it the sins of the nation. He then released the goat into the wilderness, for “the goat will carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (Lev. 16:22).

The Mishnah describes how this day was observed when the second temple stood. The high priest, having been carefully prepared, washed, and clothed, placed both hands on the head of a bull and confessed his own sins. After this, the lots were drawn for the goats; the goat to be sacrificed had a thread tied around its throat, while the other had a scarlet thread bound around its head. When the high priest had confessed the sins of the priests over the bull, it was slaughtered, and its blood was collected in a basin. Taking coals from the bronze altar and incense from the holy place, he then entered the holy of holies. There he placed the incense on the coals, filling the room with smoke to obscure the ark from his view. Returning to the holy place, he offered a short prayer, lest he pray too long and “put Israel in terror” that he had died performing the ritual. He returned to the courtyard and took the basin of blood back into the most holy place. Dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it with a whipping motion, and repeated this seven times. He did the same with the blood of the goat chosen for sacrifice, and then he poured out the remaining blood at the base of the bronze altar.

Then the high priest laid his hands on the head of the scapegoat and said, “O God, thy people, the House of Israel, have committed iniquity, transgressed, and sinned before thee. O God, forgive, I pray, the iniquities and transgressions and sins which thy people, the House of Israel, have committed and transgressed and sinned before thee; as it is written in the law of thy servant Moses...” (m.Yoma 6:2). The goat was then led outside Jerusalem, where it was pushed down a ravine to its death, apparently to keep it from wandering back into the city.

The Mishnah recognized that rituals alone were insufficient for true forgiveness, for it contains this warning: “If a man said, ‘I will sin and repent, and sin again and repent,’ he will be given no chance to repent. [If he said,] ‘I will sin and the Day of Atonement will effect atonement,’ then the Day of Atonement effects no atonement. For transgressions that are between man and God the Day of Atonement effects atonement, but for transgressions that are between a man and his fellow the Day of Atonement effects atonement only if he has appeased his fellow” (m.Yoma 8:9).

The book of Hebrews uses the symbols of Yom Kippur to describe Jesus’ death. As the high priest entered the most holy place, so Jesus entered God’s presence, carrying not the blood of bull and goat but his own. His once-for-all death at the “culmination of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) not only allows him to remain in God’s presence (10:12) but also gives us access to God’s presence as well (10:19–22).

Sabbath Year

Every seven years, the Israelites were to observe a “Sabbath of the land” (Lev. 25:6 ESV), a time for the land to rest. They could not sow fields or prune vineyards, but they could eat what grew of itself (Lev. 25:1–7). Deuteronomy 15:1–11 speaks of all debts being canceled (some would say deferred) every seventh year, presumably the same year the land was to lie fallow. When Israel was gathered at the Festival of Tabernacles during this Sabbath Year, the law of Moses was to be read aloud. The Chronicler described the seventy years of Babylonian exile as “sabbaths” for the land, perhaps alluding to the neglect of the Sabbath Year (2Chron. 36:21; cf. Lev. 26:43). Those returning from exile expressed their intent to keep this provision (Neh. 10:31), and it appears to have been observed in the intertestamental period (see 1Macc. 6:48–53; Josephus, Ant. 14.202–10).

This year seems intended to maintain the fertility of the land and to allow Israel’s economy to “reset,” equalizing wealth and limiting poverty. Observing such a provision took great faith and firm allegiance, for they had to trust God for daily bread and put obedience above profit. Rereading the law at the Festival of Tabernacles reminded the Israelites of God’s gracious covenant and their required response.

Jubilee

God instructed Israel to count off seven “sevens” of years and in the fiftieth year, beginning on the Day of Atonement, to sound a trumpet marking the Jubilee Year. As in the Sabbath Year, there was to be no sowing and reaping. Further, the land was released from its current owners and returned to those families to whom it originally belonged. Individual Israelites who had become indentured through economic distress were to be freed. The assumption underlying the Jubilee Year was that everything belonged to God. He owned the land and its occupants; the Israelites were only tenants and stewards (Lev. 25:23, 55). As their covenant lord, he would provide for their needs even during back-to-back Sabbath Years (Lev. 25:21). The year began on the Day of Atonement, perhaps to emphasize that the best response to God’s redemptive mercy is faith in his provision and mercy to others. Although the Jubilee Year is commanded in the Mosaic law and spoken about by the prophets (Isa. 61:1–2; Ezek. 46:17), rabbis, and Jesus (Luke 4:18–19), Scripture is silent on how or if Israel observed this year.

New Moon

The beginning of each month was marked with the sounding of trumpets, rejoicing, and sacrifices (Num. 10:10; 28:11–15). There is some indication that work was to be suspended on this day, as on the Sabbath (Amos 8:5), and that people gathered for a meal (1Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27). By faithfully observing this day, Israel was in a position to properly observe the remaining days, set up, as they were, on the lunar calendar. Paul learned of some in Colossae who were giving undue attention to New Moon celebrations (Col. 2:16).

Purim

Beyond the festivals commanded in the law of Moses, the Jews added two more to their sacred calendar, one during the postexilic period and one between the Testaments. Both commemorated God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies. A wave of anti-Semitic persecution swept over the Jews living in Persia during the reign of Xerxes (486–465 BC). God delivered his people through Esther, and the Jews celebrated this deliverance with the festival of Purim. Their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival “Purim,” meaning “lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February-March) with “feasting and joy and giving presents of food to one another and gifts to the poor” (Esther9:22).

Festival of Dedication

During the intertestamental period, the Jews came under great persecution from the Seleucids, who outlawed the practice of Judaism and desecrated the Jerusalem temple. After recapturing the temple, the Jews began the process of purification. On the twenty-fifth day of their ninth month, in the year 164 BC, the Jews rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar of burnt offering which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of hymns, zithers, lyres and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the gentiles had originally profaned it. The whole people fell prostrate in adoration and then praised Heaven who had granted them success. For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering burnt offerings, communion and thanksgiving sacrifices.... Judas [Maccabees], with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication of the altar should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of the month of Chislev [December], with rejoicing and gladness. (1Macc. 4:52–56, 59 NJB)

Summary

What did God want to impress on his people by commanding and permitting these specific festivals? First, these festivals reminded Israel of God’s help in the past, how he delivered them from Egypt, provided for them in the wilderness wanderings, or protected them from their enemies. Second, the festivals were occasions to celebrate God’s present provision. He had promised to provide for his covenant partner; the festivals, especially those timed to occur at the harvest, were occasions to celebrate how faithfully he had kept that promise for another year and opportunities to commit to providing for the needs of others.

The festivals prompted the Israelites not only to look back to God’s help in the past and recognize God’s help in the present, but also to look ahead, anticipating the promised consummation. The OT announced God’s intention to bring all nations into full allegiance, and the festivals were occasions to anticipate that day. Isaiah spoke of a festival in which all the nations would share: “On this mountain the Lord Almighty will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine—the best of meats and the finest of wines” (Isa. 25:6). God promised to bless “foreigners who bind themselves to the Lord to minister to him, to love the name of the Lord, and to be his servants, all who keep the Sabbath without desecrating it and who hold fast to my covenant—these I will bring to my holy mountain and give them joy in my house of prayer. Their burnt offerings and sacrifices will be accepted on my altar; for my house will be called a house of prayer for all nations” (Isa. 56:6–7). Micah predicted a day when the nations would go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Mic. 4:1–5), and Zephaniah anticipated when God would “purify the lips of the peoples, that all of them may call on the name of the Lord and serve him shoulder to shoulder,” even bringing offerings to the temple (Zeph. 3:9–10). According to Zechariah, a time was coming when “the survivors from all the nations that have attacked Jerusalem will go up year after year to worship the King, the Lord Almighty, and to celebrate the Festival of Tabernacles” (Zech. 14:16). Israel’s festivals allowed them to look back at what God had done, was doing, and was going to do for them and, through them, for the whole world.

The Israelites experienced a wide range of emotions during these festivals, but the prevailing emotion was joy. They rejoiced in their selection by God, living “together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), in God’s deliverance, provision, and protection, and in the hope of God’s consummation of his plan. Over and over, God instructed them to gather and rejoice in his presence, suggesting a fourth insight: a God who desires his people’s happiness must love his people.

Finally, the festivals were occasions to recognize God’s rule over Israel. Especially in an agricultural economy such as Israel’s, to refrain from work on the Sabbath and on festival days was to confess God’s sovereignty over time and to admit dependence on God. To leave house and fields and travel to Jerusalem confessed faith in God to protect. Offerings of firstfruits confessed that the whole harvest came from God. When they gathered, it was in the sanctuary, God’s palace, yet another reminder that God was Israel’s king, and they were his subjects.

First Peter is a concise handbook designed to prepare theChristian community to live faithfully and wisely as a minorityfacing an increasingly hostile community and government.

Outline

I.Greetings (1:1–2)

II.Who We Are in Christ (1:3–2:10)

III.How We Should Behave to Be Like Christ (2:11–3:12)

IV.How We Should Handle a Hostile Community (3:13–5:11)

V.Farewell (5:12–14)

Authorship

Theletter is written by Peter, apostle and leader of the original twelvedisciples of Jesus, who were with Jesus throughout his ministry fromhis baptism until his ascension (Acts 1:21–22).

Thestyle of the author’s Greek is very well developed for aGalilean fisherman. Early on, Peter had astonished hearers who couldnot explain his eloquence, given that he had had no formal rabbinictraining (Acts 4:13; cf. Luke 2:46–47). Examples of tinkers(John Bunyan), cobblers (William Carey), and teenagers (C.H.Spurgeon), not to mention authors excelling in their third language(Joseph Conrad), who write in polished styles suffice to reassure anydoubts concerning Peter’s ability.

Theauthor describes himself as a “fellow elder” and “witnessof Christ’s sufferings” (5:1), speaking in thefirst-person singular (2:11; 5:1, 12–13). He is with John Mark(5:13), and the letter is written “with the help of”Silvanus/Silas (5:12), who may have served as Peter’s scribe,or amanuensis.

Anumber of second-century authorities report that Peter ministered inRome, on and off, for up to twenty-five years prior to his executionby Nero in AD 65. Peter’s readers were suffering various trialsand abuse (5:9), although no mention is made of any such threat tothe church in Rome. It is therefore difficult to date 1Peter,although it must have been written between AD 50 and 64. If 2Pet.3:1 indicates a subsequent letter to the same community, as seemsprobable, a date closer to AD 64 would be more likely.

Destination

Theletter is addressed to “God’s elect, exiles scatteredthroughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia”(1:1). “Scattered” is a term used by the LXX to refer tothe dispersion of the Jews originating with the Babylonian exile andis taken up as such in the NT (John 11:52; James 1:1). “Exiles”(KJV: “strangers”) was the word used to designate peoplewho were not Roman citizens (1Pet. 2:11).

Scholarshave differed as to whether Peter was addressing a predominantlyJewish or Gentile community. The extensive allusions to the OTthroughout the letter—with particular reference to the exodus,Passover, the Suffering Servant of Isaiah, Ps. 34, andProverbs—assume that the readers have a good knowledge of allthree sections of the OT. On the other hand, Peter also speaks oftheir former “ignorance” (1:14), of the “empty wayof life handed down to you from your ancestors” (1:18), and ofpagans thinking it strange that they do not continue in their formerpagan lifestyle (4:3–4). All his citations are from the GreekOT.

Thefive areas listed were located in what is today central and northernTurkey. The order may reflect the courier’s route. Paul hadministered in some of these regions (Galatia and Asia), and Jews fromCappadocia, Pontus, and Asia were in Jerusalem earlier when Peterpreached his Pentecost sermon (Acts 2:9).

Theemperor Claudius (r. AD 41–54) established Roman colonies inthese five areas. It was Roman policy to extend the empire byestablishing cities as centers of Roman culture, government, andtrade. This often involved forced deportation of whole communities.In AD 49 Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome because “the Jewsconstantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus”(Suetonius, Claud. 25.14–15). There is good reason to thinkthat this may indicate the kind of disturbances also seen over thenext few years in Philippi (Acts 16:20–21), Thessalonica (Acts17:1–9), Corinth (Acts 18:12–17), and Ephesus (Acts 19).

Peterdoes not name any member of the community to which he is writing, noris there any indication that he had ever been there. These regionswere populated by Romans as part of a program of Roman colonization.As such, Christians who were not Roman citizens were in a veryvulnerable position. The threat here comes from Gentiles, not otherJews (2:12). There is no mention of false teachers or other internaldivisions.

Peterwrites from “Babylon” (5:13), probably a code word for“Rome” (cf. Rev. 17:5, 9). The references to Babylon hereand the Diaspora in 1:1 act as bookends designed to draw the parallelbetween the church’s present experience and that of the Jewsduring the exile (“fiery ordeal” [4:12]; cf. Dan. 1–6).

MainThemes

Peterstates that it is all about grace (5:12). The Christian’sidentity is grounded in the person and work of Jesus (1:2). Hissufferings are a model of what Christians are expected to endure(1:11, 19; 2:21–25; 3:1–18; 4:12–17; 5:1), so hisreaders should see this as normal. This suffering is also a refiningand testing process (1:6–7; 5:8–10). It fulfills God’splan as revealed in the Scriptures (1:10–12, 23–25); thusone can be sure that behind all such experiences stand the purposesof God (1:2–3, 20–21; 3:18–22; 4:19; 5:6–7).Things are not out of control but rather are leading to theaccomplishment of salvation for many (1:5, 9). Jesus has triumphedover all powers and authorities that might be fearfully rangedagainst his people (3:18–22) (see Descent into Hades). LikeNoah and those on the ark, Christ’s people will be deliveredthrough all events to an outcome of joy (1:6, 8).

Aknowledge of the Scriptures (1:10–12, 23–25) equips thosewho are being sanctified to rightly understand what is happening andso fear God, whose judgment approaches (1:17; 3:6; 5:5, 7), ratherthan people. The believer should look first to God’s approvalwhile being aware of the watching eye of those who would seek a basisfor a charge (2:12; 3:1, 17; 4:14–19). This involves puttingoff the pagan lifestyle (2:1, 11) and putting on obedience (1:2,14–16; 3:1–17). Peter surveys the behaviors most in needof attention: self-control, particularly in the way Christians speakwhen provoked (2:22–23; 3:4, 9–11), and family life,particularly when a woman is married to a threatening, unbelievinghusband (3:1–6). Christian husbands are admonished to set acounterexample by knowing and honoring their wives (3:7). It isespecially important that believers are seen to be submissive togovernment authorities (2:13–17) and to their masters(2:18–20). Within the church, sound leadership (5:1–4)supported by a new generation of respectful young men (5:5) isessential. Throughout all of this, Peter points the reader to thesanctifying work of the Holy Spirit (1:2).

Peterstrongly argues that the appropriate response to injustice andpersecution is grace given as received from Jesus. The Christian’sdefense is the gospel. Like Job, the believer’s mode ofresistance is to present the integrity of a holy, redeemed, priestlylifestyle (3:15–16). One endures through informed belief in thegospel and through faithfulness to the triune God, who keeps hispromises (1:9; cf. Hab. 2:4). The outcome is left in God’shands (5:6–7).

Both speaking in tongues and interpreting tongues are listedamong the various gifts of the Spirit that God may choose to give tobelievers according to his will (1Cor. 12:10, 28). The act ofspeaking in tongues is referred to as “glossolalia” (fromGk. glōssa [“tongue”] and laleō [“speak”]).

NarrativeRecord

Instancesin which believers exercise the gift of tongues are recorded in threebiblical narratives, with Acts 2 detailing the most notableoccurrence. When the Holy Spirit first was poured out upon Christianbelievers gathered at Pentecost, visible tongues of fire wereaccompanied by a Spirit-enabled ability to speak in languages thatwere foreign to them (2:3–4). In this instance, the tonguesspoken are identified as the actual human languages and dialects ofvarious people groups who resided throughout the Mediterranean world(2:8–11). The phenomenon resulted in the ability of many tohear the wonders of God in their native languages and prompted bothcuriosity and scoffing (2:12–13).

Asimilar outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon Cornelius and his fellowGentiles in connection with the ministry of Peter was accompanied byspeaking in tongues (Acts 10:44–46). This ability to speak intongues provided undeniable evidence that God had indeed poured outthe Holy Spirit upon Gentile Christians by manifesting the Spirit’spresence in a way comparable to the initial Pentecost experience ofthe Jewish Christians (11:15–18). A final account from thePauline ministry notes the coming of the Holy Spirit upon a dozendisciples in Ephesus with the accompanying ability to speak intongues (19:6). The text does not reveal what languages were spokenin either of these latter episodes.

Itis sometimes argued that the gift of tongues normally accompaniesChristian salvation or baptism with the Holy Spirit and is a giftthat believers should earnestly seek. However, this argument cannotbe sustained by the historical narratives of Acts. All three recordedinstances of tongues detail the gift coming upon groups of peoplerather than individuals, and the gift is poured out upon them withouttheir praying for it or seeking it out in any way. Furthermore, theseare the only three instances in Scripture where tongues clearlyaccompany salvation, whereas numerous other Lukan accounts of thesalvation of various individuals (Acts 2:41; 4:4; 8:36–39;13:12, 48; 16:14, 34), including Paul (9:1–19; 22:6–16),contain no mention of the gift of tongues.

Paul’sTeaching

Thefirst-century Corinthian church exercised a variety of spiritualgifts, including the gift of tongues. When Paul writes to thatchurch, he includes teaching designed to correct various abuses ofthese spiritual gifts. A lengthy discussion about spiritual gifts in1Cor. 12–14 affirms the practice of speaking in tonguesin the Corinthian assembly under certain conditions (14:39–40)while also relegating it to a status lower than the gift of prophecy(14:5). By its very nature, Paul asserts, those who speak in tonguesare not understood by their human audience; utterances in tonguesspeak to God, not to human beings (14:2). Therefore, on its own,glossolalia cannot edify those who hear it unless an interpretationis also provided for them. For this reason, Paul directs theCorinthians to other spiritual gifts (14:6) that can function tobuild up the church (14:12). Nonetheless, Paul affirms the practiceof glossolalia in the Corinthians’ public worship when it islimited to two or three speakers, when it is done in an orderlymanner with the speakers taking turns, and when it is coupled withinterpretation so that the church can be edified by its message(14:26–27).

ContemporaryDebates

Threequestions dominate modern discussions about the gift of tongues:(1)What is the primary purpose of speaking in tongues? (2)Whatis the nature of the language spoken when the gift of tongues isexercised? (3)Does the gift of tongues continue beyond theapostolic era? Answers to these questions vary and reflect diversetheological positions.

Primarypurpose.One position maintains that when the Spirit gives the gift oftongues, it is always a public exercise that produces infalliblerevelation from God. The primary, or perhaps sole, purpose of thisgift of miraculous utterance is as a sign to authenticate the gospelproclamation and thus contribute to the common good of the church asa whole by reaching unbelievers with the gospel in a powerful way.Proponents of this view find support in 1Cor. 14:22, where Paulspeaks of tongues as a sign for unbelievers. Also, the Pentecostexperience, narrated in Acts 2, can be understood as a use of tonguesthat fits into this framework. Opponents object to thisinterpretation by noting that it was Peter’s subsequent sermonrather than the gift of tongues itself that served an evangelisticpurpose.

Othersfind biblical support for an additional private use of tongues bybelievers in their prayer and praise directed toward God (1Cor.14:2, 28). Although the teaching in 1Cor. 14 focuses on whetherand how tongues are to be used in the public assembly, some adherentsof this position point to 14:14–19 for evidence of Paul’sown use of the gift of tongues in his devotional life. This use oftongues is thought to contribute to the common good of the churchthrough the personal edification of the individual believers whopractice this gift (14:4) and who make up the believing community.

Natureof the language.It is not entirely clear from Scripture whether the tongues spoken bythose with the gift of tongues are human languages otherwise unknownto the speaker, whether they consist of otherworldly (heavenly,angelic, spiritual) languages, or whether both constitute validoptions. The record of Pentecost in Acts 2 is the only scripturalnarrative of tongues that explicitly identifies the languages spokenby those exercising the gift of tongues; they are human languages.However, three NT passages are cited in support of the broader view.

First,in 1Cor. 13:1 Paul alludes to the possibility of speech “inthe tongues of men or of angels.” While this may affirm theidea of an angelic language being spoken by believers with the giftof tongues, those who limit tongues to human languages see in thisstatement hyperbole rather than a description of reality.

Second,when Paul discusses tongues in 1Cor. 14:2, he indicates that noone who hears understands the language. This statement is easily trueif the language spoken is “angelic,” but it would also betrue of a human language generally unfamiliar to those in theCorinthian worship assembly.

Finally,Rom. 8:26, by describing the Spirit’s intercession in prayer asgroans and utterances too deep for words, may support the idea thatthe gift of tongues consists of a spiritual rather than a humanlanguage. Opponents argue that this text in no way speaks of the giftof tongues.

Continuationbeyond the apostolic era.Finally, nowhere does Scripture expressly teach that the gift oftongues will continue throughout the entire church age, nor does itclearly state a time, be it the end of the apostolic period, theclosing of the NT canon, or some other time, when the gift of tongueswill cease. Because the NT describes the gift of tongues functioningamong believers in the first century, many believe that the gift oftongues continues to be expressed by God’s new covenant peopletoday.

Continuationistsargue that Scripture nowhere anticipates a change in the HolySpirit’s work or empowerment for ministry, and so the life ofChristians today should be similar to that of NT believers withregard to the expected and empowering presence of tongues.

Onthe other hand, cessationists believe that passages such as Eph.2:11–21 identify the first century as a unique, foundationaltime in salvation history, characterized by apostolic leadership andan open canon. Just as there are no longer apostles today, one shouldnot be surprised if the practice of miraculous gifts, including thegift of tongues, should significantly decrease or stop entirelyfollowing that foundational time. Some also point to 1Cor. 13:8as evidence that a time will come when the gift of tongues willend.

Othersopt for an intermediate position, arguing that while speaking intongues is not the standard for the church era, it is possible thatthe gift continues to operate today on a more limited scale, mostlikely only in places where the gospel is making inroads for thefirst time, a situation comparable to that of the NT era.

Both speaking in tongues and interpreting tongues are listedamong the various gifts of the Spirit that God may choose to give tobelievers according to his will (1Cor. 12:10, 28). The act ofspeaking in tongues is referred to as “glossolalia” (fromGk. glōssa [“tongue”] and laleō [“speak”]).

NarrativeRecord

Instancesin which believers exercise the gift of tongues are recorded in threebiblical narratives, with Acts 2 detailing the most notableoccurrence. When the Holy Spirit first was poured out upon Christianbelievers gathered at Pentecost, visible tongues of fire wereaccompanied by a Spirit-enabled ability to speak in languages thatwere foreign to them (2:3–4). In this instance, the tonguesspoken are identified as the actual human languages and dialects ofvarious people groups who resided throughout the Mediterranean world(2:8–11). The phenomenon resulted in the ability of many tohear the wonders of God in their native languages and prompted bothcuriosity and scoffing (2:12–13).

Asimilar outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon Cornelius and his fellowGentiles in connection with the ministry of Peter was accompanied byspeaking in tongues (Acts 10:44–46). This ability to speak intongues provided undeniable evidence that God had indeed poured outthe Holy Spirit upon Gentile Christians by manifesting the Spirit’spresence in a way comparable to the initial Pentecost experience ofthe Jewish Christians (11:15–18). A final account from thePauline ministry notes the coming of the Holy Spirit upon a dozendisciples in Ephesus with the accompanying ability to speak intongues (19:6). The text does not reveal what languages were spokenin either of these latter episodes.

Itis sometimes argued that the gift of tongues normally accompaniesChristian salvation or baptism with the Holy Spirit and is a giftthat believers should earnestly seek. However, this argument cannotbe sustained by the historical narratives of Acts. All three recordedinstances of tongues detail the gift coming upon groups of peoplerather than individuals, and the gift is poured out upon them withouttheir praying for it or seeking it out in any way. Furthermore, theseare the only three instances in Scripture where tongues clearlyaccompany salvation, whereas numerous other Lukan accounts of thesalvation of various individuals (Acts 2:41; 4:4; 8:36–39;13:12, 48; 16:14, 34), including Paul (9:1–19; 22:6–16),contain no mention of the gift of tongues.

Paul’sTeaching

Thefirst-century Corinthian church exercised a variety of spiritualgifts, including the gift of tongues. When Paul writes to thatchurch, he includes teaching designed to correct various abuses ofthese spiritual gifts. A lengthy discussion about spiritual gifts in1Cor. 12–14 affirms the practice of speaking in tonguesin the Corinthian assembly under certain conditions (14:39–40)while also relegating it to a status lower than the gift of prophecy(14:5). By its very nature, Paul asserts, those who speak in tonguesare not understood by their human audience; utterances in tonguesspeak to God, not to human beings (14:2). Therefore, on its own,glossolalia cannot edify those who hear it unless an interpretationis also provided for them. For this reason, Paul directs theCorinthians to other spiritual gifts (14:6) that can function tobuild up the church (14:12). Nonetheless, Paul affirms the practiceof glossolalia in the Corinthians’ public worship when it islimited to two or three speakers, when it is done in an orderlymanner with the speakers taking turns, and when it is coupled withinterpretation so that the church can be edified by its message(14:26–27).

ContemporaryDebates

Threequestions dominate modern discussions about the gift of tongues:(1)What is the primary purpose of speaking in tongues? (2)Whatis the nature of the language spoken when the gift of tongues isexercised? (3)Does the gift of tongues continue beyond theapostolic era? Answers to these questions vary and reflect diversetheological positions.

Primarypurpose.One position maintains that when the Spirit gives the gift oftongues, it is always a public exercise that produces infalliblerevelation from God. The primary, or perhaps sole, purpose of thisgift of miraculous utterance is as a sign to authenticate the gospelproclamation and thus contribute to the common good of the church asa whole by reaching unbelievers with the gospel in a powerful way.Proponents of this view find support in 1Cor. 14:22, where Paulspeaks of tongues as a sign for unbelievers. Also, the Pentecostexperience, narrated in Acts 2, can be understood as a use of tonguesthat fits into this framework. Opponents object to thisinterpretation by noting that it was Peter’s subsequent sermonrather than the gift of tongues itself that served an evangelisticpurpose.

Othersfind biblical support for an additional private use of tongues bybelievers in their prayer and praise directed toward God (1Cor.14:2, 28). Although the teaching in 1Cor. 14 focuses on whetherand how tongues are to be used in the public assembly, some adherentsof this position point to 14:14–19 for evidence of Paul’sown use of the gift of tongues in his devotional life. This use oftongues is thought to contribute to the common good of the churchthrough the personal edification of the individual believers whopractice this gift (14:4) and who make up the believing community.

Natureof the language.It is not entirely clear from Scripture whether the tongues spoken bythose with the gift of tongues are human languages otherwise unknownto the speaker, whether they consist of otherworldly (heavenly,angelic, spiritual) languages, or whether both constitute validoptions. The record of Pentecost in Acts 2 is the only scripturalnarrative of tongues that explicitly identifies the languages spokenby those exercising the gift of tongues; they are human languages.However, three NT passages are cited in support of the broader view.

First,in 1Cor. 13:1 Paul alludes to the possibility of speech “inthe tongues of men or of angels.” While this may affirm theidea of an angelic language being spoken by believers with the giftof tongues, those who limit tongues to human languages see in thisstatement hyperbole rather than a description of reality.

Second,when Paul discusses tongues in 1Cor. 14:2, he indicates that noone who hears understands the language. This statement is easily trueif the language spoken is “angelic,” but it would also betrue of a human language generally unfamiliar to those in theCorinthian worship assembly.

Finally,Rom. 8:26, by describing the Spirit’s intercession in prayer asgroans and utterances too deep for words, may support the idea thatthe gift of tongues consists of a spiritual rather than a humanlanguage. Opponents argue that this text in no way speaks of the giftof tongues.

Continuationbeyond the apostolic era.Finally, nowhere does Scripture expressly teach that the gift oftongues will continue throughout the entire church age, nor does itclearly state a time, be it the end of the apostolic period, theclosing of the NT canon, or some other time, when the gift of tongueswill cease. Because the NT describes the gift of tongues functioningamong believers in the first century, many believe that the gift oftongues continues to be expressed by God’s new covenant peopletoday.

Continuationistsargue that Scripture nowhere anticipates a change in the HolySpirit’s work or empowerment for ministry, and so the life ofChristians today should be similar to that of NT believers withregard to the expected and empowering presence of tongues.

Onthe other hand, cessationists believe that passages such as Eph.2:11–21 identify the first century as a unique, foundationaltime in salvation history, characterized by apostolic leadership andan open canon. Just as there are no longer apostles today, one shouldnot be surprised if the practice of miraculous gifts, including thegift of tongues, should significantly decrease or stop entirelyfollowing that foundational time. Some also point to 1Cor. 13:8as evidence that a time will come when the gift of tongues willend.

Othersopt for an intermediate position, arguing that while speaking intongues is not the standard for the church era, it is possible thatthe gift continues to operate today on a more limited scale, mostlikely only in places where the gospel is making inroads for thefirst time, a situation comparable to that of the NT era.

The keys of the kingdom picture the power and authorityentrusted to Simon Peter by Jesus immediately after Peter’sconfession of faith (Matt. 16:16). Jesus responded, “I tell youthat you are Peter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build mychurch, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it” (Matt.16:18). It is at this point that Jesus tells Peter, “I willgive you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind onearth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth willbe loosed in heaven” (16:19). Roman Catholics have understoodthese keys, along with this symbolism of loosing and binding, torefer to a special authority in the forgiveness of sins and in thepractices of penance and absolution given to the apostle Peter, andby extension to the institution of the papacy as his spiritual heir.Protestants have often understood this power as involving theapostles in general, or perhaps even the entire church (see 18:18).

Thesymbolism of keys is normally used in the Bible to refer to a meansof entry. Jesus is addressing Peter in particular in Matt. 16:19, notthe apostles as a whole, since the “you” is singular inthe Greek text. Perhaps the best way to understand this phrase is tointerpret it in its original context of something that Peter was todo in the initial establishment of the NT church. Significantly,Peter is given an unparalleled initiatory role in the spread of thegospel. Peter is the one who takes on leadership in the upper roomprayer meeting in Acts 1 and also in the process of finding anotherapostle to replace Judas Iscariot. Peter is the spokesman for theapostles on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2) as well as in thesubsequent events involving the Jerusalem church (Acts 3–5).Peter (along with John) goes down to Samaria to examine the newbelievers in Samaria and to be the human channel through which theywould receive the Spirit (Acts 8:14–17). Peter is the one whois entrusted by God with reaching out to Cornelius, the first Gentileconvert (Acts 10–11). At every step along the way, Peter is theone whom God used to open the door to new groups of people in thespread of the gospel.

The Letter of James has been hailed as possibly the earliest,most Jewish, and most practical of all NT letters. James 3:13 aptlycommunicates the book’s theme: “Who is wise andunderstanding among you? Let them show it by their good life, bydeeds done in humility that comes from wisdom.” The terms“wise” and “wisdom” occur five times in thebook (1:5; 3:13 [2×], 15, 17). Hence, the author instructed hisreaders on leading a life of faith that was characterized by a wisdomexpressed through speech and actions (2:12).

LiteraryFeatures

Theauthor’s employment of picturesque, concrete language has closeaffinities to OT wisdom literature and reflects Jesus’ teachingin the Sermon on the Mount.

James1:2 – Matthew 5:10-12

James1:4 – Matthew 5:48

James1:5; 5:15 – Matthew 7:7-12

James1:9 – Matthew 5:3

James1:20 – Matthew 5:22

James1:22 – Matthew 7:21

James2:5 – Matthew 5:3

James2:13 – Matthew 5:7; 6:14-15

James2:14-16 – Matthew 7:21-23

James3:12 – Matthew 7:16

James3:17-18 – Matthew 5:9

James4:4 – Matthew 6:24

James4:10 – Matthew 5:3-4

James4:11 – Matthew 7:1-2

James5:2 – Matthew 6:19

James5:10 – Matthew 5:12

James5:12 – Matthew 5:33-37

Likethe OT wisdom literature, the teaching in James has a stronglypractical orientation. Although the book contains some lengthierparagraphs, much of it consists of sequential admonishments andethical maxims that in some cases are only loosely related to oneanother. The sentences generally are short and direct. There arefifty-four verbs in the imperative. Connection between sentences issometimes created through repeated words. Yet the overall topic ofpractical faith and wisdom links these exhortations together.

Backgroundand Occasion

Afterthe death of Stephen, many disciples were scattered into the regionsof Judea and Samaria (Acts 7:54–8:3). In Acts 11:19 thenarrator notes, “Now those who had been scattered by thepersecution that broke out when Stephen was killed traveled as far asPhoenicia, Cyprus and Antioch, spreading the word only among Jews.”James may have written this letter to instruct and comfort thosescattered believers, as he addressed his letter to “the twelvetribes dispersed abroad” (1:1 NET). These Jewish Christians nolonger had direct contact with the apostles in Jerusalem and neededto be instructed and admonished in their tribulations. Apparently,the rich were taking advantage of them (2:6; 5:1–6), and theirtrials had led to worldliness, rash words, and strained relationships(2:1; 4:1, 11; 5:9). In view of persecution, some may have beentempted to hide their faith (5:10–11). James exhorted them todemonstrate a lifestyle that would reflect their faith.

James’sView on Works and Salvation

Somereaders of this letter have observed a seeming contradiction betweenJames’s call for good works and Paul’s insistence onsalvation by grace through faith apart from works (cf. James 2:14–26with Eph. 2:8–10). The discussion is complicated by James’sargument that a faith without works cannot “save” and byhis observation that Abraham was justified by what he did, not byfaith alone (James 2:14, 20–24). Paul, by contrast, maintainsthat Abraham was justified exclusively by faith (Rom. 4:1–3).

Referringrhetorically to people who claim to have faith but have no deeds,James asks, “Can such faith save them?” (2:14). That is,can the kind of faith that results in no works be genuine? Theexpected answer is no. The kind of faith that produces no workscannot be genuine faith; rather, it is “dead” (2:17, 26)and “useless” (2:20). This kind of faith is “byitself,” meaning that it produces no lasting fruit (2:17).James’s point is that genuine faith will produce good works inthe believer’s life. By way of contrast, a mere profession isnot necessarily an indication of genuine faith. Even demons believein God, but they are not saved; the kind of belief that they exhibitis merely an acknowledgment of God’s existence (2:19).

Accordingto James, Abraham was justified not in the sense of first beingdeclared righteous, but rather in the sense that his faith wasdemonstrated as genuine when he offered up Isaac (2:21). Paul, on theother hand, argues that salvation is obtained not through works butrather by faith alone. He quotes Gen. 15:6 to show that Abrahamtrusted God and was declared righteous several years before heoffered up Isaac (Rom. 4:3).

Accordingto Paul, Abraham was justified (declared righteous) before God whenhe believed God’s promise (Gen. 15:6), but for James, he wasjustified in the sense of giving observable proof of salvationthrough his obedience to God. Whereas Paul refers to the point andmeans of positional salvation, James refers to a subsequent eventthat confirmed that Abraham was justified.

I.Faith

A.Paul (Romans 4:1-3):

1.Is personal trust in God

2.Justifies one before God

3.Is not proof of Salvation

B.James (2:14-26)

1.Is a mere claim if there is no resulting fruit

II.Works

A.Paul (Romans 4:1-3):

1.Precede salvation

2.Attempt to merit salvation

3.Cannot justify before God

B.James (2:14-26)

1.Follow conversion

2.Are evidence of salvation

3.Confirm one’s salvation

Itis important to keep in mind that each author wrote with a differentpurpose. Paul wrote against Judaizers, who taught that a man had tobe circumcised and keep the OT law to be saved. James was warningagainst a mere profession of faith that leads to self-deception(1:22). John Calvin correctly expressed the biblical teaching thatfaith alone saves, but that kind of faith does not remain alone; itproduces good works (cf. Rom. 3:21–6:14; Eph. 2:8–10;Titus 2:11–14; 3:4–7).

Authorship

Theauthor identifies himself as “James, a servant of God and ofthe Lord Jesus Christ” (1:1). The NT mentions five personshaving the name “James”: (1)James the son ofZebedee and the brother of John (Matt. 4:21); (2)James the sonof Alphaeus (Matt. 10:3); (3)James “the younger”(Mark 15:40); (4)James the father of the apostle Judas (notJudas Iscariot; Luke 6:16); and (5)James the brother of Jesus(Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Gal. 1:19).

Jamesthe brother of John was executed by Herod AgrippaI, who died inAD 44 (Acts 12:2). Since the Letter of James probably was writtenafter this date, the brother of John could not have written it.Neither James the son of Alphaeus, James the younger, nor James thefather of Judas was as prominent in the early church as the writer ofthis letter, who simply identified himself and assumed that hisreaders would know him (1:1). James the son of Alphaeus is mentionedfor the last time in Acts 1:13, and nothing is known of James thefather of Judas apart from the listing of his name in Luke 6:15; Acts1:13. (It is uncertain whether James the younger should be identifiedwith one of the other four or is a separate figure.) Thus, it isunlikely that any of them wrote the book. James the brother of Jesusis most likely the author of this letter.

Jamesthe Brother of the Lord

Atthe beginning of Jesus’ ministry, James, as well as hisbrothers Joses (Joseph), Judas, and Simon, did not believe that Jesuswas the Messiah (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; John 7:5). However, they cameto believe in him after the resurrection (Acts 1:14; 1Cor.15:7). Paul called James, along with Peter and John, the “pillars”of the church (Gal. 2:9). James does not claim to be an apostle inthis letter; however, he is identified as one in Gal. 1:19. But therethe term “apostle” probably refers to a group of leadingdisciples outside the Twelve (cf. Acts 14:4, 14; 1Cor. 15:7;Gal. 2:9). Since the author of this letter employed many imperatives,his readers clearly accepted his authority. James, the brother ofJesus, who also became a key leader of the church in Jerusalem,possessed such authority (Acts 12:17; 15:13, 19; 21:18; Gal. 1:18–19;2:9).

Date

Somescholars hold that the Letter of James was written around AD 62,while others argue that James wrote this letter sometime in AD 45–50.Those who favor the earlier dates point out that the Jewish characterof this letter fits with this period when the church was mainlyJewish, based on the following criteria: (1)There is no mentionof Gentile Christians in the letter. (2)The author does notrefer to the teachings of the Judaizers. If the letter had beenwritten at a later date, we would expect the author to address theissue of circumcision among Christians. (3)The mention of“teachers” (3:1) and “elders” (5:14) as theleaders in the church reflects the structure of the primitive church.(4)The word “meeting” in 2:2 is the same Greek wordas for “synagogue.” It describes the gathering place ofthe early church. This implies a time when the congregation was stillprimarily Jewish (Acts 1–7).

Outline

I.Introduction (1:1)

II.The Wise Christian Is Patient in Trials (1:2–18)

A.How the Christian should face trials (1:2–12)

B.The source of temptations (1:13–18)

III.The Wise Christian Is a Practical Doer of the Word (1:19–2:26)

A.Hearers and doers of the word (1:19–25)

B.True religion (1:26–27)

C.Prejudice in the church (2:1–13)

D.Faith that works (2:14–26)

IV.The Wise Christian Masters the Tongue (3:1–18)

A.The power of the tongue (3:1–12)

B.The wisdom from above (3:13–18)

V.The Wise Christian Seeks Peace in Relationships (4:1–17)

A.The cause of quarrels (4:1–3)

B.Warning against worldliness (4:4–10)

C.Warning against slander (4:11–12)

D.Warning against boasting and self-sufficiency (4:13–17)

VI.The Wise Christian Is Patient and Prays When Facing Difficulties(5:1–20)

A.Warning to the rich (5:1–6)

B.Exhortation to patience (5:7–12)

C.The power of prayer (5:13–18)

D.The benefit of correcting those in error (5:19–20)

Media was a country located to the south of the Caspian Sea,to the east of the Tigris River and Zagros Mountains, to the west ofParthia, and to the north of Elam. The northern portion of the moderncountry of Iran occupies the same area, although at the height ofMedia’s power, the kingdom included parts of modern-day Iraqand Turkey. The best-known city was Ecbatana. The people of Media,the Medes, lived on the steppes and were known among the neighboringcountries for their excellent horses.

Historyof Media.A people called the “Madai,” an Indo-Aryan groupdescended from Japheth, gave their name to the region (Gen. 10:2).Historically, Media appears on the scene in the records of theAssyrian monarch ShalmaneserIII, who claims to have invadedMedia in the ninth century BC. Other Assyrian monarchs listed theMedes among the peoples who paid tribute to and traded with theAssyrian Empire. The relationship between the two countries was neverentirely friendly, and the Assyrian monarchs Tiglath-pileserIII(r. 744–727 BC) and SargonII (r. 721–705 BC)invaded Media and forcibly added parts of the country to the AssyrianEmpire and made them pay tribute. These subjugated provinces were nodoubt the parts of Media to which SargonII sent some of theexiles after he conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722/721BC (2Kings 17:6; 18:11).

AfterSargonII, Sennacherib continued to keep the Medes insubmission. Yet the Medes were not beaten. They became more powerful,and in an alliance with the Scythians and the Babylonians theyrebelled against their Assyrian overlords. In 614 BC Asshur, one ofthe capitals of Assyria, was captured by the Medes. Cyaxares, theleader of the Medes, joined with Nabopolassar, the leader of theBabylonians, and together they captured Nineveh (612 BC) and Harran(610 BC). This effectively brought an end to the Assyrian Empire andbrought the northern portions of the former empire under Mediancontrol. Nebuchadnezzar, Nabopolassar’s son, married Cyaxares’daughter, thus cementing the alliance.

Mediaeventually was conquered by CyrusII, who made Media a provinceof the Persian Empire and added “King of the Medes” tohis titles. Media remained an important culture as part of thePersian Empire, and the dual identification of Persians and Medesremained attached to the empire (Esther 1:19; Dan. 5:28). Thecombined power of Media and Persia became the dominating empire untilthe rise of and conquest by the Greeks under Alexander the Great (332BC).

Mediain the Bible.The Medes and Media figure most prominently in the biblical books ofDaniel and Esther. Daniel began his exile and rise to fame under theBabylonians but finished his prophetic career under the rule of theMedo-Persian Empire. Both Daniel and other prophets foresaw thischange of governance and the Medes’ part in the conquest ofBabylon (Isa. 13:17; 21:2; Jer. 51:11, 28; Dan. 5:28). The importanceof the Median contribution to the culture and governance of the newempire is manifest in the fact that the Medo-Persian ruler Darius iscalled “the Mede” in Dan. 11:1 due to his mixed ancestry(cf. Dan. 9:1). Indeed, the idea that an established law could not bechanged even by the king himself (cf. Esther 1:19) seems to be aMedian contribution to the empire and was the political tool used byDaniel’s enemies to have him thrown into the lions’ den(Dan. 6:8,12).

Manyof the exiled Jews from Judah chose to settle in Media instead ofreturn to Judah, and a portion of their story is recounted in thebook of Esther. Esther 1:3 notes that “the military leaders ofPersia and Media” were among those present at a great feast ofAhasuerus (XerxesI). Similarly, in Esther 1:14 the king’sclosest advisers are labeled “nobles of Persia and Media,”indicating the unity of the two countries and the cultural mix amongthe high officials. The same was true of the high-ranking women inthe land (Esther 1:18).

Jewsfrom Media who recognized the Median language being spoken by theSpirit-filled disciples are mentioned in Acts 2:9. Thus, although thecountry had ceased to be a dominant power in the world, its languageand culture were still present during the NT period.

Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).

Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).

Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).

Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).

A journey to a religious site. In biblical times, Jerusalemwas a prominent destination of pilgrimage, as implied in the law ofcultic centralization in Deut. 12:13–14. Several of theprophets envision a future age in which the nations travel toJerusalem for instruction (e.g., Isa. 2; Mic. 4).

Jesusmade several pilgrimages to Jerusalem in connection with major Jewishfeasts. His parents took him to Jerusalem for the Passover, as wastheir custom (Luke 2:41–42). As an adult, Jesus continued tomake this journey. The three journeys of Jesus to Jerusalem recordedin the Gospel of John are the chief evidence for the tradition thathis ministry lasted three years (John 2:13; 5:1; 12:1). Jesus alsotraveled to Jerusalem for the Feast of Booths (John 7:10) and theFeast of Dedication (John 10:22).

Paul’sfinal journey to Jerusalem, which eventuated in his arrest, was forthe purpose of attending the Jewish Feast of Pentecost there (Acts20:16). This festival was also responsible for the presence of manyforeigners in Jerusalem in the days of the early church (Acts 2:1).

Ina broader sense, and especially in some older English translations,pilgrimage can refer to a period of residence outside one’sproper homeland (sojourning). This usage recalls the prominentbiblical theme of sojourning, which pertains to the patriarchs (Gen.47:9), Moses (Acts 7:29), the Israelites (Deut. 10:19), as well asseveral other biblical figures. In the NT, this aspect of theIsraelite experience (see Heb. 11:13) is applied to Jesus (Matt.8:20; Luke 9:58) and, in a figurative sense, to Christian communities(Phil. 3:20; 1Pet. 2:11).

The presence of God is one of the most significant themes inthe Bible. At the very heart of worshiping God and having arelationship with him is experiencing his presence. Related themessuch as God’s power and glory are also inextricablyinterconnected to his presence.

OldTestament

Thebiblical story begins with humankind experiencing and enjoying God’spresence in a very personal way, as God walks with Adam and Eve inthe garden. Adam and Eve, however, soon disobey God and are thusdriven out of the garden and away from the close, intimate presenceof God (Gen. 3:22–24). Throughout the rest of Scripture, Godunfolds his plan to restore this lost relationship, a relationshipthat centers on his presence.

AlthoughGod makes his presence known to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Genesis,it is in Exodus that the presence of God becomes even more central tothe story. When God first calls Moses, he promises his powerfulpresence, declaring, “I will be with you” (Exod. 3:12).The power of God’s presence is revealed as God guides andprotects the fleeing Israelites in the form of a pillar of cloud byday and a pillar of fire by night (13:21–22). The presence ofGod also plays a critical role in the formal covenant relationshipthat God makes with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod. 19). At the heart ofthe covenant is a threefold statement by God: “I will be yourGod”; “you will be my people”; “I will dwellin your midst” (cf. Exod. 6:7; Lev. 26:11–12). Followingup on his promise to dwell in their midst, God next gives the peopleexplicit instructions on how to build the tabernacle, the place wherehe will dwell (Exod. 25:8–9). Throughout the latter chapters ofExodus, God’s glory is clearly associated with his presence(33:12–23; 40:34–38); in fact, God’s presence andglory are nearly synonymous.

God’spresence resides in the tabernacle until Solomon builds the temple inJerusalem (1Kings 6–7). At that time, the presence andglory of God then fill the holy place of the temple and dwell there.Over the next four hundred years, however, Israel and Judahrepeatedly abandon God and turn to worshiping idols. The peoplerepeatedly refuse to repent and to listen to God’s prophets.Eventually, therefore, their idolatrous sin and terrible socialinjustices drive God out of their midst. Ezekiel 8–10 describesthis somber, momentous event as the glory and presence of God departfrom the temple. Before long, as the prophets warned, the Babylonianscapture Jerusalem and destroy both the city and the empty temple. Itis significant to remember that when the temple is later rebuiltduring the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, the presence and glory of Goddo not come back to fill the new temple. Thus, from the departure ofGod in Ezek. 10 until the arrival of Jesus Christ, the Jews livewithout the powerful presence of God dwelling in their midst.

Althoughthe prophets had warned Israel and Judah that they would lose thepresence of God as part of the imminent judgment, they also promiseda powerful and glorious restoration of God’s presence in themessianic future. Furthermore, both Ezekiel and Joel promise that Godwill actually put his Spirit directly within his people (Ezek.36:26–28; Joel 2:28). No longer limited to the holy of holiesin the temple, under the new covenant the presence of God willactually indwell each of his people.

NewTestament

Inthe NT, the coming of Jesus is clearly identified as the newmanifestation of God’s presence that was foretold in theprophets (Matt. 1:22–23; John 1:14). Jesus’ entry intothe temple is highly significant, therefore, because it signals areturn of the presence of God to the temple after an absence of oversix hundred years (Matt. 21:12–17; John 2:12–24).Ironically, in the temple Jesus encounters only hostility andhypocritical worship; the presence of God is rejected once again.

Afterthe death and resurrection of Jesus, the Holy Spirit falls on hisfollowers, filling them with God’s powerful presence (Acts2:1–13), thus fulfilling the prophecies of Ezekiel and Joel.This new presence of God does not come to dwell in the temple;rather, it comes upon believers to dwell within them in a much morepersonal and relational way.

Asthe biblical story reaches its culmination at the end of the book ofRevelation, God declares, “God’s dwelling place is nowamong the people, and he will dwell with them. They will be hispeople, and God himself will be with them and be their God”(21:3). The story has gone full circle: God has returned his peopleto the garden and come to dwell in their midst so that they can enjoyhis wonderful presence eternally.

Sanctificationand Holiness

Inthe biblical sense, the word “sanctification” relatesdirectly to the Hebrew and Greek words for “holy” (qadoshand hagiosrespectively). One may even argue that “holy-fication”would be preferable to “sanctification” to underscore theintertwined nature of these terms. In Scripture, English terms suchas “holy”/“holiness,”“consecrate”/“consecration,” and“sanctify”/“sanc-ti-fi-cation”/“saints”express cognates of qadosh/hagios.

Despitecontinued emphasis by many writers that “holy” speaks toseparation and that “to be holy” means “to be setapart,” the biblical terms are relational and speak primarilyof belonging. “To be holy” (sanctified) means “tobelong to God”; separation follows only as the exclusivity ofthis relationship demands it.

Qadoshis God’s adjective. God’s character defines the meaningof “holy,” not the other way around. Holy, then, cannotbe reduced to religious notions of purity (and/or exclusivity) butrather must be understood in light of the full expression of God’scharacter and will. While other adjectives such as “great,”“majestic,” and “powerful” can also describehumans, God exclusively determines the meaning of the adjectiveqadosh(hagios).“Holy” has no meaning apart from God. Humans (and things)become holy only as they belong to God. For example, an ordinarytable dedicated to God becomes aholy table. The peoplebelonging to God area holypeople. Different from otherspirits, the Holy Spirit belongs to God and expresses his presenceexclusively (cf. Isa. 6:3; 52:1).

Itfollows that holiness and divine presence are tightly interwoven. Godopens the door into his presence, enabling sanctification (John17:18; 1Cor. 1:2; Heb. 10:10), and he calls for his people notto violate his relational presence (2Cor. 7:1; 2Tim.2:21; Heb. 12:14). Sanctification, then, is not as much an intrinsic“either/or” quality (granted or not granted) as it is arelational “more or less” quality based on God’sdynamic presence. Put differently, the biblical perspective onholiness resists reduction to a mere “holy versus profane”dichotomy and cannot be reduced to a simple declaration (granted!) orto a specific list of godly requirements (dos and don’ts).

OldTestament

Thegradation of the OT priesthood into levels of holiness that enabledentrance and service in weaker or stronger intensities of God’spresence underscores further this dynamic quality of holiness.Although all the people of Israel were holy (belonging to God), thepriests enjoyed a higher degree of holiness than the ordinaryIsraelite. Within the ranks of the priests, the high priest wentthrough stricter rituals of consecration (Exod. 29:1–8, 20–21;Lev. 8:7–24; 21:13–15), since he alone could minister inthe most intensive presence of God (Lev. 16:1–17). Less holywere those of the Aaronic lineage born with physical defects.Although sufficiently holy to eat from the most holy offerings, theycould not serve at the altar (Lev. 21:16–23).

AverageIsraelites possessed a lower level of holiness than Levites andpriests but could, as individuals, acquire greater levels of holinessthrough obedience (Lev. 11:44–45; Num. 15:40–41).Moreover, special vows, like that of the Nazirite, enhanced theaverage Israelite’s quality as holy. The Nazirite vow (Num.6:1–21) did not transfer priestly status to any person, but itdid elevate one’s holiness to a comparable level during theperiod of dedication.

Thisdynamic connection between divine presence and sanctification becomeseven more evident in the prophets. They were “holy men”because they were endowed with the divine spirit, and as the level ofthis endowment varied from prophet to prophet, so did theireffectiveness as God’s messengers. False prophets still carriedthe name, but their lack of devotion to Israel’s God causedinaccuracy in their message (e.g., Jer. 6:13–14).

NewTestament

Thisdynamic relationship between divine presence and holiness translatesdirectly to the NT use of hagiasmos (and cognates). Although theGospels rarely use “sanctification” vocabulary, Jesus’ongoing polemic against the Pharisees, who had turned their piety(holiness) into a question of mere conspicuous behavior, makes thesame point. John’s correlation of Jesus’ sanctificationas God’s Son with the disciples’ experience of theSpirit’s empowerment (John 10:34–38; 17:17–19)indicates the same. Sanctification could not be separated frompurpose and sending (20:21–23) and could not be reduced to aprocess of learning specified “Christian” behaviors.This, again, follows the pattern outlined in Acts; it was theoutpouring of the Spirit that enabled the disciples to live theChristian life, which required the dynamic, creative power of God’spresence (Acts 1:8; 2:1–21).

Paul’sconversion exemplifies this tight connection between divine presenceand sanctification (holiness). Not attaining the experience of Godthat he expected from keeping the law, Paul found the law-promisedaccess to God in Christ. This turned him into a theologian of theSpirit who focused on the relational quality of God’s presence.In Paul’s vernacular “divine presence,” asexpressed through the language of holiness or sanctification, stemsfrom the relational work of the Holy Spirit. Accordingly,sanctification centers on deepening the relationship between God andthe Spirit-filled Christian. Sanctification as a process of“learning” ethics surfaces only as a derivative; ethicsis a by-product of divine presence, not vice versa. The antidote tothe vices of the flesh (Gal. 5:18–21) is not a contrasting listof virtues of the Spirit but rather a fruit, the product or result,of living in God’s presence (Gal. 5:22–23).

ForPaul, Spirit possession was synonymous with being a Christian (Rom.8:9). His concern involved the intensity of the Spirit’spresence. The Spirit could be grieved and his presence quenched—adevastating situation to the Christian’s power and sanctity(Eph. 4:30; 1Thess. 5:19).

Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).

Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).

Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).

Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).

The Israelites gathered regularly to celebrate their relationship with God. Such festivals were marked by communal meals, music, singing, dancing, and sacrifices. They celebrated, conscious that God had graciously brought them into a relationship with him. Within this covenant he had committed himself to act on their behalf both in regular ways, such as the harvest, and in exceptional ways, such as deliverance from Egypt. At the festivals, Israel celebrated God’s work in its past, present, and future and reaffirmed its relationship with this covenant God.

We know of Israel’s festivals from several calendars in the Mosaic legislation (Exod. 23:14–17; 34:18–23; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17), calendars further clarified by the prophets (e.g., Ezek. 45:18–25; Zech. 14), and narrative material (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23). Some read discrepancies between calendars as evidence of multiple sources, but this fails to account for the various purposes that these calendars served. The narrative and prophetic passages suggest that Israel did not observe these festivals as frequently as, and in the ways, God intended (e.g., Amos 8:5), but when Israel sought to renew its relationship with God, it often did so with a festival (e.g., 2Kings 23:21–23).

Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread

Israel’s religious calendar began with Passover, the day set aside to commemorate deliverance from Egypt. Occurring in spring, this single day was joined with a weeklong celebration known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread, during which all males were required to make a pilgrimage to the sanctuary and offer the firstfruits of the barley harvest (Lev. 23:9–14). Israel observed Passover with rituals that reactualized the night God’s destroyer spared the Israelites in Egypt. A lamb was killed, and its blood was put on the doorposts of the homes and on the bronze altar in the sanctuary. The lamb was roasted and served with unleavened bread and bitter herbs while those partaking—dressed in their traveling clothes—listened to the retelling of the exodus story. No yeast was to be found anywhere among them, no work was to be done on the first and last days of the festival, and offerings were to be brought to the sanctuary (Num. 9:1–5; Josh. 5:10–11; 2Kings 23:21–23; 2Chron. 30; 35:1–19).

Early Christians associated Jesus’ death with that of the Passover lamb (1Cor. 5:7–8), encouraged by Jesus’ comments at the Last Supper (described by the Synoptic Gospels as a Passover meal [e.g., Matt. 26:17–30]). Perhaps Jesus meant to emphasize that just as Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread reminded God’s people of his deliverance and provision, his followers would find true freedom and full provision in him.

The Festival of Weeks

Also known as the Festival of Harvest, the Day of Firstfruits, or Pentecost (because it occurred fifty days after Passover), the Festival of Weeks took place on the sixth day of the third month (corresponding to our May or June). This marked another occasion when all Jewish men were required to come to the sanctuary. They were to bring an offering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, abstain from work, and devote themselves to rejoicing in God’s goodness.

Early in the NT period, if not before, this festival also became associated with the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. The Jews who assembled in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost as described in Acts 2 came to celebrate not only God’s provision but also the revelation of his nature and will. Significantly, God chose this day to send the Holy Spirit, the One who would produce a harvest of believers and reveal God more fully to the world.

The Festival of Tabernacles

So important was the Festival of Tabernacles (also known as the Festival of Ingathering or the Festival of Booths) that Israel sometimes referred to it as “the festival of the Lord” (Judg. 21:19) or simply “the festival” (cf. 1Kings 8:65). Held from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the seventh month (September–October), this was the third of the three pilgrimage festivals. For that week, Israel lived in booths to remind them of their ancestors’ time in the wilderness. They also celebrated the fruit harvest. They were to “take the fruit of majestic trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice” before God for seven days (Lev. 23:40 NRSV). Avoiding all work on the first and last days of the festival, they were to mark the week with sacrifices, celebration, and joy. Also, every seventh year the law was to be read at this festival (Deut. 31:10–11).

The Mishnah, a collection of rabbinic laws compiled around AD 200 but often reflecting earlier traditions, records how Israel observed this festival during the early Roman period. As part of the celebration, men danced and sang in the courtyard of the temple while Levites, standing on the steps that led down from the court of the Israelites, played harps, lyres, cymbals, and other instruments. Two priests blew trumpets—one long blast, then a quavering one, then another long blast—while walking toward the eastern gate. When they reached the gate, they turned back toward the temple and said, “Our fathers when they were in this place turned with their backs toward the Temple of the Lord and their faces toward the east, and they worshiped the sun toward the east [referring to the apostasy of the Jews as described by Ezekiel]; but as for us, our eyes are turned toward the Lord” (m.Sukkah 5:4). Another part of this festival involved the drawing of water for a libation offering from the Pool of Siloam with great ceremony and joy. John 7 records Jesus’ secretive departure to Jerusalem for the Festival of Tabernacles, where he spent several days teaching in the temple courts. It was on the last and greatest day of the festival when Jesus invited those thirsty to come to him and drink.

The Festival of Trumpets

Occurring on the first day of the seventh month (September–October), this feast marked the beginning of the civil and agricultural year for the Jews; it was also referred to as Rosh Hashanah (lit., “head/beginning of the year”). Observed as a Sabbath with sacrifices and trumpet blasts, this day was intended for rest and to begin preparations for the coming Day of Atonement. The Mishnah makes this connection more explicit by identifying the Festival of Trumpets as the day when “all that come into the world pass before [God] like legions of soldiers” or flocks of sheep to be judged (m.Rosh HaSh.1:2).

The Day of Atonement

Some festivals, like Passover, looked back to what God had done or was doing for his people; other festivals, like Trumpets and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), focused on the relationship itself. The latter was marked by repentance and rituals designed to remove the nation’s sins and restore fellowship with God. Coming ten days after the Festival of Trumpets, this was a solemn occasion during which the Israelites abstained from eating, drinking, and other activities. This was the only prescribed annual fast in the Jewish calendar, though other fasts were added in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn the Babylonian exile (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19).

In Leviticus, God clarified the purpose of this day: “On this day atonement will be made for you, to cleanse you. Then, before the Lord, you will be clean from all your sins” (16:30). Not only would the people be purified, but so also would the sanctuary, so that God could continue to meet his people there. Sacrifices were offered for both priest and people, and the blood was taken into the most holy place. Only on Yom Kippur could this room be entered, and only by the high priest, who sprinkled blood on the cover of the ark of the covenant. Leaving that room, he also sprinkled blood in the holy place (16:14–17) and then on the bronze altar in the courtyard.

Yom Kippur was marked by another ritual that symbolized the removal of Israel’s sins, this one involving two goats. One goat, chosen by lot, was offered as a sacrifice to God. The high priest placed his hands on the other goat and transferred to it the sins of the nation. He then released the goat into the wilderness, for “the goat will carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (Lev. 16:22).

The Mishnah describes how this day was observed when the second temple stood. The high priest, having been carefully prepared, washed, and clothed, placed both hands on the head of a bull and confessed his own sins. After this, the lots were drawn for the goats; the goat to be sacrificed had a thread tied around its throat, while the other had a scarlet thread bound around its head. When the high priest had confessed the sins of the priests over the bull, it was slaughtered, and its blood was collected in a basin. Taking coals from the bronze altar and incense from the holy place, he then entered the holy of holies. There he placed the incense on the coals, filling the room with smoke to obscure the ark from his view. Returning to the holy place, he offered a short prayer, lest he pray too long and “put Israel in terror” that he had died performing the ritual. He returned to the courtyard and took the basin of blood back into the most holy place. Dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it with a whipping motion, and repeated this seven times. He did the same with the blood of the goat chosen for sacrifice, and then he poured out the remaining blood at the base of the bronze altar.

Then the high priest laid his hands on the head of the scapegoat and said, “O God, thy people, the House of Israel, have committed iniquity, transgressed, and sinned before thee. O God, forgive, I pray, the iniquities and transgressions and sins which thy people, the House of Israel, have committed and transgressed and sinned before thee; as it is written in the law of thy servant Moses...” (m.Yoma 6:2). The goat was then led outside Jerusalem, where it was pushed down a ravine to its death, apparently to keep it from wandering back into the city.

The Mishnah recognized that rituals alone were insufficient for true forgiveness, for it contains this warning: “If a man said, ‘I will sin and repent, and sin again and repent,’ he will be given no chance to repent. [If he said,] ‘I will sin and the Day of Atonement will effect atonement,’ then the Day of Atonement effects no atonement. For transgressions that are between man and God the Day of Atonement effects atonement, but for transgressions that are between a man and his fellow the Day of Atonement effects atonement only if he has appeased his fellow” (m.Yoma 8:9).

The book of Hebrews uses the symbols of Yom Kippur to describe Jesus’ death. As the high priest entered the most holy place, so Jesus entered God’s presence, carrying not the blood of bull and goat but his own. His once-for-all death at the “culmination of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) not only allows him to remain in God’s presence (10:12) but also gives us access to God’s presence as well (10:19–22).

Sabbath Year

Every seven years, the Israelites were to observe a “Sabbath of the land” (Lev. 25:6 ESV), a time for the land to rest. They could not sow fields or prune vineyards, but they could eat what grew of itself (Lev. 25:1–7). Deuteronomy 15:1–11 speaks of all debts being canceled (some would say deferred) every seventh year, presumably the same year the land was to lie fallow. When Israel was gathered at the Festival of Tabernacles during this Sabbath Year, the law of Moses was to be read aloud. The Chronicler described the seventy years of Babylonian exile as “sabbaths” for the land, perhaps alluding to the neglect of the Sabbath Year (2Chron. 36:21; cf. Lev. 26:43). Those returning from exile expressed their intent to keep this provision (Neh. 10:31), and it appears to have been observed in the intertestamental period (see 1Macc. 6:48–53; Josephus, Ant. 14.202–10).

This year seems intended to maintain the fertility of the land and to allow Israel’s economy to “reset,” equalizing wealth and limiting poverty. Observing such a provision took great faith and firm allegiance, for they had to trust God for daily bread and put obedience above profit. Rereading the law at the Festival of Tabernacles reminded the Israelites of God’s gracious covenant and their required response.

Jubilee

God instructed Israel to count off seven “sevens” of years and in the fiftieth year, beginning on the Day of Atonement, to sound a trumpet marking the Jubilee Year. As in the Sabbath Year, there was to be no sowing and reaping. Further, the land was released from its current owners and returned to those families to whom it originally belonged. Individual Israelites who had become indentured through economic distress were to be freed. The assumption underlying the Jubilee Year was that everything belonged to God. He owned the land and its occupants; the Israelites were only tenants and stewards (Lev. 25:23, 55). As their covenant lord, he would provide for their needs even during back-to-back Sabbath Years (Lev. 25:21). The year began on the Day of Atonement, perhaps to emphasize that the best response to God’s redemptive mercy is faith in his provision and mercy to others. Although the Jubilee Year is commanded in the Mosaic law and spoken about by the prophets (Isa. 61:1–2; Ezek. 46:17), rabbis, and Jesus (Luke 4:18–19), Scripture is silent on how or if Israel observed this year.

New Moon

The beginning of each month was marked with the sounding of trumpets, rejoicing, and sacrifices (Num. 10:10; 28:11–15). There is some indication that work was to be suspended on this day, as on the Sabbath (Amos 8:5), and that people gathered for a meal (1Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27). By faithfully observing this day, Israel was in a position to properly observe the remaining days, set up, as they were, on the lunar calendar. Paul learned of some in Colossae who were giving undue attention to New Moon celebrations (Col. 2:16).

Purim

Beyond the festivals commanded in the law of Moses, the Jews added two more to their sacred calendar, one during the postexilic period and one between the Testaments. Both commemorated God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies. A wave of anti-Semitic persecution swept over the Jews living in Persia during the reign of Xerxes (486–465 BC). God delivered his people through Esther, and the Jews celebrated this deliverance with the festival of Purim. Their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival “Purim,” meaning “lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February-March) with “feasting and joy and giving presents of food to one another and gifts to the poor” (Esther9:22).

Festival of Dedication

During the intertestamental period, the Jews came under great persecution from the Seleucids, who outlawed the practice of Judaism and desecrated the Jerusalem temple. After recapturing the temple, the Jews began the process of purification. On the twenty-fifth day of their ninth month, in the year 164 BC, the Jews rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar of burnt offering which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of hymns, zithers, lyres and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the gentiles had originally profaned it. The whole people fell prostrate in adoration and then praised Heaven who had granted them success. For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering burnt offerings, communion and thanksgiving sacrifices.... Judas [Maccabees], with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication of the altar should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of the month of Chislev [December], with rejoicing and gladness. (1Macc. 4:52–56, 59 NJB)

Summary

What did God want to impress on his people by commanding and permitting these specific festivals? First, these festivals reminded Israel of God’s help in the past, how he delivered them from Egypt, provided for them in the wilderness wanderings, or protected them from their enemies. Second, the festivals were occasions to celebrate God’s present provision. He had promised to provide for his covenant partner; the festivals, especially those timed to occur at the harvest, were occasions to celebrate how faithfully he had kept that promise for another year and opportunities to commit to providing for the needs of others.

The festivals prompted the Israelites not only to look back to God’s help in the past and recognize God’s help in the present, but also to look ahead, anticipating the promised consummation. The OT announced God’s intention to bring all nations into full allegiance, and the festivals were occasions to anticipate that day. Isaiah spoke of a festival in which all the nations would share: “On this mountain the Lord Almighty will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine—the best of meats and the finest of wines” (Isa. 25:6). God promised to bless “foreigners who bind themselves to the Lord to minister to him, to love the name of the Lord, and to be his servants, all who keep the Sabbath without desecrating it and who hold fast to my covenant—these I will bring to my holy mountain and give them joy in my house of prayer. Their burnt offerings and sacrifices will be accepted on my altar; for my house will be called a house of prayer for all nations” (Isa. 56:6–7). Micah predicted a day when the nations would go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Mic. 4:1–5), and Zephaniah anticipated when God would “purify the lips of the peoples, that all of them may call on the name of the Lord and serve him shoulder to shoulder,” even bringing offerings to the temple (Zeph. 3:9–10). According to Zechariah, a time was coming when “the survivors from all the nations that have attacked Jerusalem will go up year after year to worship the King, the Lord Almighty, and to celebrate the Festival of Tabernacles” (Zech. 14:16). Israel’s festivals allowed them to look back at what God had done, was doing, and was going to do for them and, through them, for the whole world.

The Israelites experienced a wide range of emotions during these festivals, but the prevailing emotion was joy. They rejoiced in their selection by God, living “together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), in God’s deliverance, provision, and protection, and in the hope of God’s consummation of his plan. Over and over, God instructed them to gather and rejoice in his presence, suggesting a fourth insight: a God who desires his people’s happiness must love his people.

Finally, the festivals were occasions to recognize God’s rule over Israel. Especially in an agricultural economy such as Israel’s, to refrain from work on the Sabbath and on festival days was to confess God’s sovereignty over time and to admit dependence on God. To leave house and fields and travel to Jerusalem confessed faith in God to protect. Offerings of firstfruits confessed that the whole harvest came from God. When they gathered, it was in the sanctuary, God’s palace, yet another reminder that God was Israel’s king, and they were his subjects.

The outpouring of the Spirit that was prophesied in the OT totake place in the last days, in connection with the arrival of theMessiah.

Spiritbaptism in the Bible.The OT prophets had spoken of both the Spirit of God coming upon theMessiah (e.g., Isa. 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and a giving or pouring out ofthe Spirit in the last days (e.g., Isa. 32:15; 44:3; Ezek. 36:27;37:14; 39:29; Joel 2:28). Peter connects the giving of the Spiritwith Jesus’ being received by the Father and being grantedmessianic authority (Acts 2:33–38). The experience of Corneliusin particular associates the pouring out of the Spirit (Acts 10:45)with a baptism with the Spirit (11:16).

Sevenpassages in the NT directly speak of someone being baptized in/withthe Spirit. Four of these passages refer to John the Baptist’sprediction that Jesus will baptize people in/with the Spirit incontrast to his own water baptism (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:16;John 1:33). In Matthew and Luke, Jesus’ baptism is referred toas a baptism with the Holy Spirit and with fire. Two passages referto Jesus’ prediction that the disciples would receive Spiritbaptism, which occurred at Pentecost. As recorded in Acts 2, tonguesof fire came to rest on each of them, they were filled with the HolySpirit, and they began to speak in other tongues. As the disciplesspoke to the Jews who had gathered in Jerusalem for the festival,three thousand were converted. Acts 1:5 contains Jesus’prediction of this baptism with the Spirit, which Peter recounts in11:16.

Thefinal reference occurs in 1 Cor. 12:13, where Paul says, “Forwe were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body—whetherJews or Gentiles, slave or free—and we were all given the oneSpirit to drink.” Thus, Christians form one body through theircommon experience of immersion in the one Spirit.

Asecond baptism?Whilein 1 Cor. 12 Paul seems to refer to an experience that allChristians undergo at conversion, there are several incidents in Actswhere the reception of the Spirit occurs after conversion. Thequestion then arises as to whether there is a separate “baptismin/with the Holy Spirit” distinct from the Spirit’sinitial work of regeneration and incorporation into the body ofChrist at conversion and whether this two-stage process is normativefor the church. This belief in a second baptism is particularlyprominent in Pentecostal traditions.

Examplessuch as Acts 2; 8; 10; 19 are commonly used to support the view of asecond and subsequent experience of Spirit baptism. In Acts 2 thedisciples are already converted and wait for the Spirit, who comes tothem at Pentecost. In Acts 8 the Samaritans first respond to Philip’spreaching and receive water baptism. However, they receive the Spiritonly after Peter and John come from Jerusalem and pray for them toreceive the Holy Spirit. In Acts 10 Cornelius is a God-fearingGentile, and after Peter visits him, the Spirit falls on hishousehold. In Acts 19 Paul finds some disciples in Ephesus. After helays hands on them, the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and they beginto speak in tongues and prophesy.

Inunderstanding these experiences, it must be remembered that Actsdescribes a transitional period for the church. Acts 2 in particularrecounts the initial giving of the Spirit under the new covenant. Itis possible, then, to see the events in Acts 8; 10 as the coming ofthe Spirit upon two other people groups, the Samaritans and theGentiles. Acts 2:38 and 5:32 indicate that the apostles expected thereception of the Spirit to accompany conversion, and this appears tobe the case in the rest of the book. Acts 19 narrates anincomplete conversion, where the people had only experienced John’sbaptism and receive the Spirit after Paul baptizes them “in thename of the Lord Jesus.”

Filledwith the Spirit.Although the NT does not support a theology of a second Spiritbaptism, it does commonly mention an experience of being “filled”with the Spirit. The concept of being “filled with the Spirit”frequently occurs in contexts referring to spiritual growth, such asin Eph. 5:18, where Paul exhorts, “Do not get drunk on wine,which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit.”Apparently, this filling can occur numerous times. It can lead toworship of and thanksgiving to God (Eph. 5:19–20). It can alsoresult in empowerment for ministry.

Theimmediate consequence of the disciples’ filling in Acts 2:4 isspeaking in tongues to the various Jews gathered in Jerusalem, and in4:31 they are empowered to speak “the word of God boldly.”Fullness of the Spirit can also be a characteristic of a believer’slife, such as in Acts 6:3, where the seven men chosen to look afterthe widows were to be men “known to be full of the Spirit.”

The biblical writers proclaim that only one God exists, yetthey also refer to three persons as “God.” The Father,the Son, and the Holy Spirit are all God. Furthermore, these threepersons relate to one another as self-conscious individuals. Jesusprays to the Father (John 17). The Father speaks from heavenconcerning the Son (Matt. 3:17; Luke 3:22). Jesus vows to send theSpirit as “Advocate” after his ascension, and he will dowhat Jesus himself did while he was among us (John 16:7–8). Thechallenge of Christian theology, therefore, is to formulate adoctrine of God that captures all these elements, each of whichsurfaces in both Testaments.

OldTestament

Inthe OT, evidence for the Trinity appears mostly at the implicitlevel. Yahweh is called “Father” in Isaiah (63:16; 64:8),Jeremiah (3:4, 19; 31:9), and Malachi (2:10). Isaiah declares, “Butyou are our Father, though Abraham does not know us or Israelacknowledge us; you, Lord, are our Father, our Redeemer from of oldis your name” (Isa. 63:16). Yahweh identifies himself as“Father” implicitly when he claims Israel as his “son”(Hos. 11:1), and the same principle applies to Ps. 2:7, where Goddeclares to his anointed, “You are my son; today I have becomeyour father.” These cases do not compare in numbers with the NTevidence, but a person thought of as “God the Father”certainly appears in the OT.

Messianictexts of the OT introduce us to God the Son. In Isa. 9:6 a “childis born” who will be called “Wonderful Counselor, MightyGod, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.” The day of“Immanuel,” or “God with us,” is foreshadowedin Isa. 7:14 (cf. Matt. 1:22), while Isa. 40:3–5 anticipatesthe appearance of the Lord “in the wilderness” (cf. Matt.3:3). Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with theclouds of heaven” being given “authority, glory andsovereign power” (Dan. 7:13–14). In Ps. 110:1 Yahweh saysto David’s “Lord,” “Sit at my right handuntil I make your enemies a footstool for your feet.”

Similarly,the OT seems to distinguish the Spirit of God from Yahweh whileimplying the Spirit’s own personality. Genesis 1:2 makes thatcase, as does Exod. 31:3, where Yahweh fills Bezalel with the “Spiritof God” (cf. Exod. 35:31; Num. 11:29). In 1Sam. 16:14 acontrast is made between the “Spirit of the Lord” thatleaves Saul and an “evil spirit from the Lord” thattorments him; also we find a repentant David pleading that God wouldnot take away his “Holy Spirit” (Ps. 51:11). The Spiritcan be put on persons by God, with the result that they prophesy(Isa. 61:1; Joel 2:28–29) and do what pleases him (Ezek.36:26–27). In the OT, therefore, we see two persons (the Sonand the Holy Spirit) who are both God and also distinguishable fromone to whom they answer and by whom they are sent.

NewTestament

TheNT contains abundant evidence for “God the Father,” oftenbecause of Jesus’ teaching. The “Father” appearsseveral times in the Sermon on the Mount (e.g., Matt. 5:16; 6:6–9,14, 18, 26, 32; 7:11). Matthew 7:21 stands out because of Jesus’reference to “my Father who is in heaven,” by which heidentifies himself as the Son (see also Matt. 15:13; 16:17; 18:10;and Luke 24:49). Paul’s greetings normally come from God theFather and the Lord Jesus Christ, as seen in Rom. 1:7: “Graceand peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ”(also 1Cor. 1:3; 2Cor. 1:2; Gal. 1:1–3; 1Tim.1:2; 2Tim. 1:2). Paul introduces the Father and the Son in1Cor. 8:6: “For us there is but one God, the Father, fromwhom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord,Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live”(see also 1Cor. 15:24; 2Cor. 11:31; Eph. 1:3; Phil.2:22). Other significant texts include Heb. 1:5; 1Pet. 1:2–3;in the latter, the scattered believers are those “who have beenchosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through thesanctifying work of the Spirit, to be obedient to Jesus Christ andsprinkled with his blood.... Praise be to the Godand Father of our Lord Jesus Christ!” The NT evidence for “Godthe Father” is clear.

Biblicaltexts that point to the deity of Christ supply evidence for thesecond claim: the Son is God. Some of the texts listed above say asmuch, but one can take this case further. In context, John’sprologue refers to Jesus as the “Word” and proclaims thathe was “with God” and “was God” (John 1:1).Jesus also relates to the Father in ways that imply his own deity, ashe declares in John 10:30, “I and the Father are one.”After significant doubting, Thomas confesses the deity of Christ inJohn 20:28: “My Lord and my God!” NT passages thatidentify Jesus as the “Son of God” point to his deity, asPeter does in Matt. 16:16: “You are the Messiah, the Son of theliving God.” Even demons identify Jesus as the Son. They callout, “What do you want with us, Son of God? ...Have you come here to torture us before the appointed time?”(Matt. 8:29; cf. Mark 5:7). The so-called Christ Hymn of Phil. 2:6–11puts Jesus on the level with God, saying that he did not consider“equality with God something to be used to his own advantage.”The author of Hebrews declares that Jesus is “the radiance ofGod’s glory and the exact representation of his being”(1:3). Colossians 1:15–16 says that Jesus is the “imageof the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation” and theone by whom “all things were created,” and Col. 1:19states that “God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell inhim.” According to Titus 2:13, Jesus is “our great Godand Savior.” The entire sequence of Rev. 4–5 highlightsthe deity of Christ, culminating in the praise “To him who sitson the throne and to the Lamb be praise and honor and glory andpower, for ever and ever!” as both the Enthroned One and theLamb are worshiped as God (5:13–14).

TheNT writers underscore both the deity and the distinctive personalityof the Holy Spirit. Jesus is conceived in Mary’s womb by theSpirit’s power (Matt. 1:18–20), and when Jesus isbaptized, the Spirit descends upon him as a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark1:10). Jesus drives out demons by the Spirit, and one dare not speakagainst the Spirit when he does so (Matt. 12:28–32). Luke’sGospel puts added emphasis on the ministry of the Spirit, as we alsosee in Acts. He empowers various people to praise and prophesy (Luke1:41, 67) and to be witnesses for Christ (Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17–18,38). Sinners can lie to the Holy Spirit (Acts 5:3, 9), and the HolySpirit bears witness along with the apostles to the risen Christ(5:32). In John’s Gospel, the Spirit becomes the counselor andteacher of the disciples, reminding them of their Lord’sinstructions (John 14:26; 16:13). The Spirit brings assurance ofsonship (Rom. 8:16) and helps disciples when they pray (8:26). Thisperson even knows the very thoughts of God (1Cor. 2:11).Accordingly, the Great Commission requires baptism in the name of theFather, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). All three membersof the Trinity have a part in the advancement of the kingdom, theSpirit no less than the Father and the Son.

Relationshipsbetween Father, Son, and Spirit

Theevidence considered thus far demonstrates that three persons arecalled “God” in Scripture: the Father, the Son, and theHoly Spirit. But the Scriptures also point to a chain of command intheir relationship to one another. The Son obeys the Father, and theSpirit proceeds from the Father and the Son to apply the work of thecross to the church. This “functional subordination” ofthe Son to the Father, some might argue, would follow simply from theanalogy chosen by God to reveal himself to us. The “Son”would obey his “Father,” not vice versa, though theyshare a common dignity as God, just as a human father and son share acommon humanity. But the NT writers expressly tell us that theyrelate to each other in this way. In Matt. 11:27 (cf. Luke 10:22)Jesus announces, “All things have been committed to me by myFather” (cf. John 3:35; 5:22). The latter transfers authorityto the former as his subordinate. The Father even (for a season)knows more than the Son regarding the last days: “About thatday or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son,but only the Father” (Matt. 24:36), though he also dignifiesthe Son: “For the Father loves the Son and shows him all hedoes” (John 5:20). The Son’s commitment to please hisheavenly Father is a prominent theme of the NT, as Jesus declares inJohn 5:19: “The Son can do nothing by himself; he can do onlywhat he sees his Father doing, because whatever the Father does theSon also does.” No text brings out this dependence of the Sonupon the Father more clearly than Heb. 5:7–8, where the Son issaid to have “offered up prayers and petitions with ferventcries and tears to the one who could save him from death, and he washeard because of his reverent submission. Son though he was, helearned obedience from what he suffered.” It is debated bytheologians whether this functional subordination relates only to theperiod of the Son’s earthly ministry, or whether it is aneternal subordination.

TheSpirit, though equal in personality and dignity with the Father andthe Son, proceeds from them to apply the work of the cross andempower the church for ministry. In John 14:26 Jesus says, “TheAdvocate, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, willteach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said toyou.” In John 15:26 Jesus announces that he also sends theSpirit out: “When the Advocate comes, whom I will send to youfrom the Father—the Spirit of truth who goes out from theFather—he will testify about me.” The Spirit only conveyswhat he has received: “He will not speak on his own; he willspeak only what he hears, and he will tell you what is yet to come”(John 16:13). The same “chain of command” appears in John16:15, where Jesus says, “All that belongs to the Father ismine. That is why I said the Spirit will receive from me what he willmake known to you.”

TrinitarianHeresies

TheFather, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are God, while beingdistinguishable persons. The Son obeys the Father; and these twopersons of the Trinity send out the Holy Spirit to implement ourdeliverance from sin. A defensible explanation of the Trinity willrespect all these dynamics, taking special care not to illustratethem with misleading images or simply lapse into various forms ofpolytheism. One of the earliest heresies of the church came fromMarcion, a second-century theologian who distinguished the Father ofJesus from the supposedly vindictive God of the OT, which leaves uswith more than one God. Later came the heresies of modalism andsubordinationism (or Arianism). Modalists claimed that the persons ofthe Trinity are no more than guises worn by the one person of God.One minute God is the Father, the next he is the Son or the HolySpirit. Subordinationists such as Arius (died AD 336) went beyond thefunctionality of the NT’s chain of command, arguing that theSon and the Holy Spirit are not themselves God but are essentiallysubordinate to him. Jehovah’s Witnesses have fallen into thislatter error, suggesting that Jesus is “a god” but notthe Creator God.

Theseearly heresies pressed the church to refine its understanding of theTrinity. In his response to Marcion’s error, Tertullian coinedprecise language to describe the persons of the Godhead, so thatGod’s “threeness” and “oneness” arepreserved. He used the Latin term trinitas to describe the ChristianGod and argued that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit sharethe same “substance.” The Son (also, then, the HolySpirit) is not simply of “like substance” (Gk.hom*oiousios) with God the Father, but rather is “consubstantial”(Gk. hom*oousios) with him: the Son is God, and so is the Holy Spirit.The Nicene Creed of AD 325 incorporated this explanation and, in sodoing, also set aside the idea that either the Son or the Holy Spiritwas created by God, as the Arian heresy requires. Nicaea alsorejected adoptionism, which regards Jesus as a man whom God promotedby endowing him with supernatural powers.

Eachof these heresies—plus, say, the strict monotheism ofIslam—attempts to relieve the tension seen among the claimsthat constitute the Trinity; however, orthodox Christians willremember that tensions and paradoxes are not automaticcontradictions. No philosopher or theologian has ever expresslydemonstrated that the Trinity entails logical nonsense, andChristianity’s detractors carry the burden of proof in thiscase. It is one thing to allege that an idea is contradictory, andquite another thing to show with an argument that it is so. On thepositive side, the Trinity must remain a central doctrine of thechurch because it affects all the others, especially the entire workof redemption. If God is not triune, then Jesus is not God; and if heis not God, then he cannot save us, nor can we worship him as ourLord. The sacrifice that he offers for our sin would not, in thatcase, be supremely valuable. Consider also the application to us ofwhat Christ has done. If the Holy Spirit is not God, then he cannotspeak for God as one who knows perfectly his thoughts and gives usthe word of God, our Bible. Scripture indicates that God is triune,and sinners need him to be so.